<text>Norton Scores: Supp. set-CD1Norton Anthology: Vol.I-CD2Norton Anthology: Vol.I-CD1Nijmegen - the Netherlands - c. 1600,49666Naples - 1575,49667Niccolo Machiavelli,17072Niccolo Machiavelli (VA),16327Nicolaus Copernicus,15625Navigators and Explorers,Norton Anthology: Vol.I-CD2Norton Anthology: Vol.I-CD3NARVAEZ - Mille regretz,48,48Nu bitten wir den heil'gen Geist,49,50Norton Anthology: Vol.I-CD4Norton Scores: Vol.1-CD1Norton Scores: Supp. set-CD1Norton Anthology: Vol.I-CD4Norton Anthology: Vol.I-CD5</text>
</content>
<content>
<layer>background</layer>
<id>10</id>
<text>ANONYMOUS - Carol: Deo gratias Anglia,1,4A page from the Gutenberg Bible,17081A European map of the world - 1520,44057A 16th century tailor,46885A 16th century joiner,46887A panorama of Venice,49671A detail of a Flemish town - 16th century,49684A gondolier on a canal in Venice,49672Amsterdam - c. 1600,49680A cathedral in Siena - Italy,49682A Renaissance headdress,17105A 16th century cooking scene,17102A demon is exorcised by a clergyman,17097A magician surrounded by scenes of witchcraft,17098A witch or Lady Fate,17099A peddler - woodcut by Hans Holbein the Younger,17086A fencing room at Leiden University - the Netherlands,17091A foot soldier preparing to fire a musket - c. 1600,17093A jeweled cup,17103A Venetian glass ewer,17104A page from the Gutenberg Bible,17081An example of Italic writing,17090Albrecht Altdorfer,nameAndrea del Sarto,nameAgnolo Bronzino,nameA Young Woman and Her Little Boy,234Andrea del Castagno,nameA Donor and His Wife (1),584A Donor and His Wife (2),586A Prince of Saxony,741A Princess of Saxony,743Albrecht Dürer,16384Adam and Eve,3123Apocalypse: The Four Horsemen,3119An Oriental Ruler Seated on His Throne,2720A Miracle of Saint Nicholas,190A peddler - woodcut by Hans Holbein the Younger,17086Adoration of the Magi,3154Andrea Mantegna,nameAllegory,184Antonio Rossellino,nameA Procurator of Saint Mark's,425Andrea del Verrocchio,nameAngels and Putti in the Clouds,2651Anne de Bourg defends the Protestant cause,17030Anabaptist baptism - 1645,19823A family being "cupped" after a bath - 1568,41353A 15th century apothecary's shop,41359A toothpuller at a market - 16th century,41367A lepers' banquet at Nuremberg - 15th century,41370A lepers' banquet at Nuremberg - detail,41371A birthing chair - c. 1546,41376A man being bled from the arm - c. 1550,41348A man applies leaches to lose weight - 1598,41349A leg amputation in the 16th century,41336A 16th century water mill,41403A cosmographer in his study - c. 1600,41434A diagram of Copernicus' heliocentric universe,41437A reconstruction of Gutenberg's printing press,41419An alchemist in his laboratory,41399Ann Boleyn,17019A European map of the world - 1520,44057A two-masted galleon - late 16th century,41469A Peruvian llama known as a "camel sheep" by the early Spanish,44069A New World beast,44070Amerigo Vespucci,1655Andreas Vesalius,Anatomical dissection - from Vesalius' De Humani Coporis Fabrica,41340ARCADELT - Missa Noe noe: Kyrie and Gloria,30,34ARCADELT - Ahime dov'e 'l bel viso,19,21ATTAINGNANT - Danseries a 4 parties,44,45</text>
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<content>
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<id>68</id>
<text>Salve sancta parens,35,35SACHS - Nachdem David war redlich,36,36STOP OVERVIEW (RENAISSANCE AND REFORMATION),Smelting iron ore in the 16th century,46870Saltmaking in the 16th century,46884Speyer - Germany - on the Rhine River - 1543,49663St. Mark's Cathedral - Venice,49670South American Indians playfully steal Sir Francis Drake's hat,44078Self-Portrait,2358Saint Anne with the Christ Child and the Virgin and Saint John the Baptist,711Saint Jerome Reading,343Saint Jerome Reading - detail,345Salvator Mundi,291Saint Francis Receiving the Stigmata,132Saint John in the Desert,130Saint Eustace,3121Saint Ildefonso,525Saint Jerome,527Saint Martin and the Beggar,523Simeon and the Patriarch,2775Sir Brian Tuke,737Sir Thomas More,17074Saint Benedict Orders Saint Maurus to the Rescue of Saint Placidus,128Saint Veronica,620Statue of Moses by Michelangelo,17055Saint George and the Dragon,204Saint George and the Dragon - detail,206Saint Michael,2643Sassetta and Assistant,nameSaint Anthony Distributing His Wealth to the Poor,90Saint Anthony Leaving His Monastery,92Sebastiano del Piombo,nameSummer,415Susanna,421Standing Youth with His Arm Raised - Seen from Behind,2655Saint John the Evangelist on Patmos,389Saint Jerome in the Wilderness,409Saint Lucy and a Donor,405Saint George and the Dragon (van der Weyden),588Saint George and the Dragon (van der Weyden) - detail,590Study of a Man Seen from Behind,2649St. Peter's Cathedral and the Piazza - Rome,17064St. Peter's Square - Rome,17065Sir Thomas More,17074Service in a Reformed Church in the United Provinces,16995Spaniards and their allies attack Mexico City,44065Some of the beasts of Brazil,44071Sir Francis Drake,15608Scene from the Peasants' War in Germany - 1525,17009St. Basil's Cathedral -Moscow- built by Ivan the Terrible,17067Se la face ay pale,12,12SERMISY - Tant que vivray,1,2SUSATO - Three Dances — a. Pavanne "Mille regretz",15,15SUSATO - Three Dances — b. Ronde I,16,16SUSATO - Three Dances — c. Ronde II-Ronde I repeated,17,17SERMISY - Tant que vivray,1,2</text>
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<content>
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<id>56</id>
<text>GABRIELI - Hodie completi sunt,44,46GO TO OVERVIEW (RENAISSANCE AND REFORMATION),14758Glassmaking in Bohemia - 15th century,46878Genoa - c. 1600,49678Gravelines fortress in Flanders - c. 1600,49685Giovanni Bellini,nameGiovanni Emo,351Giuliano de'Medici,150Gentile da Fabriano,nameGinevra de' Benci,168Ginevra de' Benci - detail,170Guglielmo della Porta,nameGiulio Romano,nameGiovanni Girolamo Savoldo,nameGiuliano de Medici,2378Giuliano de'Medici,150Giuliano de'Medici,2378GESUALDO - "Io parto" e non piu dissi,37,39G. GABRIELI - Plaudite psallite,5,5</text>
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<content>
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<id>107</id>
<text>"The Life of Saint Ignatius Loyola" by Assam,27481597 Map of North and South America,1639"The Village Fete" a harvest celebration - c. 1500,4682516th century blacksmiths,4688116th century shoemaker,46882"The Square of St. Mark's" by Canaletto - c. 1740,4966917th century French society,3067316th century woman's dress,1710616th century water punishment,1709616th century army encampment,17092"Noble Savages" of the New World,4409117th century library of Leiden University in the Netherlands,17082"St. Thomas Aquinas" by Fra Angelico,14676"Death and the Miser" by Hieronymous Bosch,14755(Botticelli) The Adoration of the Magi,152(Botticelli) The Adoration of the Magi - detail 1,154(Botticelli) The Adoration of the Magi - detail 2,156"Madonna and Child" by Sandro Botticelli,17044"Pope Clement VII (Giulio de'Medici)" by Bronzino,17015"Melencolia" - etching by Durer,41394"Madonna and Child" by Fra Filippo Lippi,17043"Christ Driving the Traders from the Temple" by El Greco,17061"The More Family Group" by Holbein,17075"Ginevra de'Benci" by Leonardo da Vinci,17058"Fetus in uterus" by Leonardo,41337"Emperor Charles V" by Leoni,16989"Madonna and Child" by Hans Memling,17045"God Separates the Water from the Earth" by Michelangelo,17051"Philip II of Spain" by Tintoretto,16990"Venus and Adonis" by Titian,17060"Lorenzo de Medici" by Verrocchio,17041"The More Family Group" by Holbein,1707516th century doctors dining with patients in the background,4134615th century surgical instruments,4133316th century surgical instruments,41335"Fetus in uterus" by Leonardo,41337"Melencolia" etching by Durer,41394"Lorenzo de Medici" by Verrocchio,17041"Pope Clement VII (Giulio de'Medici)" by Bronzino,17015"Ferdinando II de'Medici - Grand Duke of Tuscany" by Foggini,2460"Henry VIII of England" by Hans Holbein the Younger,17014"Sir Thomas More" by Hans Holbein the Younger,1707416th century European sailors navigating,4405916th century cartoon on the plunder of the Americas,44067"Image of the True Catholiche Church of Christ" woodcut,17016</text>
</content>
<content>
<layer>background</layer>
<id>67</id>
<text>Renaissance (1400-1600),Renaissance Intro Essay,Reconstruction of Shakespeare's Globe Theater,17079Renaissance Geography,Renaissance Economy,Renaissance Population,Renaissance Society,Renaissance Politics,Renaissance Warfare,Relief force of ships led by William of Orange,16993Renaissance Foreign Relations,Renaissance Culture,Renaissance Art Essay,reverse of Ginevra de' Benci,172Raphael,nameRiver God,2641Ranuccio Farnese,387Rebecca at the Well,411Rogier van der Weyden,nameRenaissance Music Essay,Renaissance Religion/Philosophy Essay,Renaissance Science & Technology Profiles,Renaissance hospital from Paracelsus's Opus Chirurgicum - 1565,41345Removing a worm from a man's body - 1497,41375Reconstruction of Shakespeare's Globe Theater,17079RORE - Datemi pace o duri miei pensieri,27,30</text>
</content>
<content>
<layer>background</layer>
<id>65</id>
<text>PLAY OVERVIEW (RENAISSANCE AND REFORMATION),Pope Julius II,17042Paris in 1607,49690Present-day Florence - looking north,49677Preparing for winter - about 1490,14703Pope Julius II,17042Part of title page of Ship of Fools - published in 1494,17071Portrait of a Young Man in Red,341Portrait of a Youth,158Portrait of a Donor,674Pieter Bruegel the Elder,namePortrait of a Man,138Petrus Christus,namePortrait of a Man (Cranach),745Portrait of a Woman,747Portrait of a Clergyman,719Portrait of a Young Man,735Portrait of a Man (Mantegna),269Profile Portrait of a Young Man,70Portrait of a Man with an Arrow,618Perino del Vaga,namePietro Perugino,namePiero di Cosimo,namePontormo,namePortrait of Young Woman,238Pope Paul III Farnese,2425Portrait of a Knight,295Portrait of a Humanist,369Portrait of a Young Woman as a Wise Virgin,365Portrait of a Lady,397Paolo Veronese,namePortrait of a Lady (van der Weyden),592Philipp Melanchthon - a leader of the German Reformation,17006Physicians examining a leper - 1540,41369Planetary influences - a woodcut from 1503,41332Philip II of Spain,16990Ponce de Leon,1656Panfilo de Narvaez,1661Philipp Melanchthon - a leader of the German Reformation,17006Persecution of Protestants by the Pope - woodcut,17017Public burning of heretics by the Spanish Inquisition,17011Posterior muscles - from Vesalius' De Humani Coporis Fabrica,41339PALESTRINA - Pope Marcellus Mass: Credo,35,40PALESTRINA - Missa Papae Marcelli: Gloria,18,19</text>
</content>
<content>
<layer>background</layer>
<id>72</id>
<text>WR Renaissance Intro,William Shakespeare,17078World Map - 1570,1640Workers crush grapes to make wine - late Middle Ages,46877Wine trade between England and Bordeaux - France — woodcut,17089Woman playing a lute,17101Winter scene - about 1490,14704Workshop of Albrecht Altdorfer,nameWoman and man with venereal disease being treated - 15th century,41372William Shakespeare,17078William Shakespeare (portrait),16344WILLAERT - O crux splendidior,55,56,WILLAERT - Aspro core e selvaggio,22,26WEELKES - O Care - thou wilt despatch me,40,43</text>
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<content>
<layer>background</layer>
<id>55</id>
<text>Francois Rabelais,17076Florence - c. 1600,49676Fort Caroline - a 16th century French settlement in Florida,44075Father Matteo Ricci -Jesuit missionary- and Chinese convert - c. 1582,44110Fra Angelico,nameFra Filippo Lippi and Fra Angelico,nameFra Filippo Lippi,nameFollower of Joachim Patinir,nameFederico Zuccaro,nameFort Caroline - a 16th century French settlement in Florida,44075Francisco Pizarro,15605Ferdinand Magellan,15606Francisco Pizarro,1662Francisco V√°zquez de Coronado,1664Francis I of France,17026Francis I confirms his royal officers,17027Funerary effigy of Mary Stuart - Queen of Scots,17024FARMER - Fair Phyllis,27,27</text>
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<content>
<layer>background</layer>
<id>62</id>
<text>Michel de Montaigne,17077Mining in 16th century Germany,46857Mining in 16th century Germany: bringing ore down the mountain,46858Merchant of 16th century Augsburg,17088Meissen - Germany - c. 1600,49662Milan - c. 1600,49679Middleburg - in south Holland - c. 1600,49681Medal with the likeness of Ferdinand of Aragon,16986Mohammed II - Sultan of the Turks,16997Madonna and Child,347Madonna and Child with Saints,349Madonna and Child (Cranach),749Madonna and Child (Veneziano),134Madonna and Child (Durer),713Madonna and Child (Durer) detail,715Melancholia,3125Madonna and Child (Fabriano),188Madonna and Child (Ghirlandaio),144Madonna and Child with Saint Martina and Saint Agnes,521Mathis Grunewald,nameMaerten van Heemskerk,nameMovement of birds in the air - from notebooks by Leonardo,17059Madonna and Child (Lippi),126Madonna and Child (Monaco),72Masaccio,nameMadonna and Child with Angels,624Michelangelo,16385Modern copy of Michelangelo's David in the Palazzo Vecchio,17054Madonna and Child (Perugino),198Monsignor della Casa,240Madonna of Humility,2390Madonna and Child (Rossellino),2376Martin Schongauer,nameMadonna and Child and the Infant Saint John in a Landscape,391Martin Luther,17002Martin Luther at the Diet of Worms,30621Martin Luther - portrait,16320Major figures of the continental Reformation,17007Maximilian I,16988Maria de Medici,19782Middle Renaissance (1480-1520),Middle Renaissance Essays,Mary Tudor and her husband Philip II of Spain,17020Medal with the likeness of Ferdinand of Aragon,16986Mexico City - capital of the Aztec empire - 16th century,44064Magellan and his men battle inhabitants of the Philippines,44072Montezuma arrested by Cortes,1660Middle Renaissance Grid,Mature Renaissance (1520-1560),Mature Renaissance Essays,Martin Luther,17002Major figures of the continental Reformation,17007Mature Renaissance Grid,Mannerism,MOUTON - Noe noe psallite noe,53,54MORALES - Emendemus in melious,1,6MARENZIO - Solo e pensoso,31,36MORTON - L'omme arme,46,46MILAN - Fantasia XI,47,52MONTEVERDI - Ohime! se tanto amate,21,21MONTEVERDI - L'incoronazione di Poppea (Act III-Scene 7),22,26MONTEVERDI - Cruda Amarilli,58,62MONTEVERID - Ohime dov'e il mio ben,63,66MONTEVERDI - L'Orfeo — a. Prologo: Dal mio Permesso,77,82MONTEVERDI - L'Orfeo — b. Act II: Vi ricorda o boschi ombrosi,83,MONTEVERDI - L'Orfeo — c. Act II: In un fiorito prato-Tu se' morta-Ahi caso ascerbo,1,7MONTEVERDI - L'Incoronazione di Poppea: Act I-Scene 3,8,12</text>
</content>
<content>
<layer>background</layer>
<id>51</id>
<text>Banking - 15th century,29794Buda and Pest - Hungary - c. 1600,49665Baptism of the King of the Congo in 1489 by the Portuguese,44088Botticelli,nameBenozzo Gozzoli,nameBattle of the Sea Gods,3046Bird Perched on a Branch with Fruit,2625Bindo Altoviti,218Bust of a Monk Assisting at Communion,2718Building a 16th century church,41448Balboa,1657Battle with the Spanish Armada,30672BYRD - Tu es Petrus,10,11BYRD - Pavana Lachrymae,27,29</text>
<text>Detail of "the Village Fete" by Daniel Hopfer,46826Detail of "the Village Fete" by Daniel Hopfer,46827Dyeing cloth in the late Middle Ages,46876Deportation of the Jews before Ferdinand and Isabella,16987Detail of Habsburg troops,17095Detail of the Battle of Lepanto,16999Death and the Miser,628Death and the Miser - detail 1,630Death and the Miser - detail 2,632Death and the Miser by Bosch,30617Death and the Miser - detail,30618Dirck Bouts,nameDomenico Veneziano,nameDonatello,nameDomenico Ghirlandaio,nameDetail of the hand of David by Michelangelo,17053Doorknocker with Nereid and Triton and Putti,2423Doge Alvise Mocenigo and Family before the Madonna and Child,419Doge Andrea Gritti,381Detail of the St. Bartholomew's Day Massacre,17034Detail of Habsburg troops,17095Deportation of the Jews before Ferdinand and Isabella,16987Defeat of the Spanish Armada by the English - 1598,17025DUNSTABLE - Quam pulchra es,36,36DUFAY - Conditor alme siderum,37,38DUFAY - Nuper rosarum flores,39,46DUFAY - Missa se la face ay pale: Gloria,13,18DUFAY - Resvellies vous et faites chiere lye,41,43DUFAY - Adieu ces bons vins de Lannoys,44,44DUFAY - Alma redemptoris mater,10,10DOWLAND - Flow my tears,67,69DOWLAND - Lachrimae Pavan,24,26</text>
<text>London in 1620,49688London in 1620 - another view,49689Lecturer at Bologna University in the 15th century,49728Leon Battista Alberti,nameLandscape with the Penitance of Saint Jerome,2779Lucas Cranach the Elder,nameLot and His Daughters - reverse of Madonna and Child,717Laocoon,529Laocoon - detail,531Leonardo's sketches of flying machines,41489Leonardo da Vinci,16383Leonardo da Vinci waterpump drawings,30078Lucas van Leyden,nameLorenzo Monaco,nameLuca Signorelli,nameLorenzo de Medici,2380Leonardo's sketches of flying machines,41489Lorenzo de'Medici,2380Library of Humphrey - Oxford University,17083Late Renaissance (1560-1600),Late Renaissance Essays,Late Renaissance Grid,LASSO - Cum essem parvulus,7,9LE JEUNE - Revecy venir du printans,3,11LASSUS - Bon jour mon coeur,20,20</text>
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<content>
<layer>background</layer>
<id>54</id>
<text>Essen - Germany - c. 1600,49660Erasmus of Rotterdam - engraving by Albrecht Durer,17073El Greco (Domenikos Theotokopoulos),nameEdward VI as a Child,739Elijah Fed by the Raven,293Erasmus of Rotterdam - engraving by Albrecht Durer,17073Early Renaissance (1400-1440),Early Renaissance Essays,Emperor Charles V by Leone Leoni,16989Early Renaissance Grid,Early Middle Renaissance (1440-1480),Early Middle Renaissance Essays,Early Middle Renaissance Grid,Eton College,17085Embarkation of Henry VIII to meet Francis I,17028Elizabethan England,Elizabeth I of England,17021Elizabeth I before Parliament,17022</text>
</content>
<content>
<layer>background</layer>
<id>60</id>
<text>Kolding - Denmark - c. 1600,49664Kings of Europe at the Founding of the Order of St. George - 1469,14641</text>
</content>
<content>
<layer>background</layer>
<id>71</id>
<text>Venice - c. 1600,49668Vestibule of the Laurentian Library in Florence - designed by Michelangelo,17057Venus Anodyomene,2421Vincenzo Capello,383Venus and Adonis,399Venus with a Mirror,393Venus with a Mirror - detail,395Vasco Nunez de Balboa,44062Vasco da Gama,15604Vasco da Gama ,1650</text>
</content>
<content>
<layer>background</layer>
<id>52</id>
<text>Cambrai - in Flanders, c. 1600,49683Cordoba - Spain - c. 1600,49686Chenonceaux Castle - Normandy,17068Chambord Castle - the largest of the Loire,17070Charity,230Crucifixion,3129Correggio,nameCharlemagne by Albrecht Durer,14610Christ Cleansing the Temple,515Christ Cleansing the Temple - detail,517Chalice of Saint John the Evangelist - reverse of Saint Veronica,622Cardinal Bandinello Sauli and His Secretary and Two Geographers,367Christ at the Sea of Galilee,423Cardinal Pietro Bembo,383Cupid with the Wheel of Fortune,379Contemporary cartoon of Martin Luther,17003Clinical scene showing several surgical procedures - 1550,41344Childbirth in the 16th century,41377Catherine de Medici,17029Charles the Bold - Duke of Burgundy,14640Ceiling vaulting in the Library of Humphrey,17084Cardinal Wolsey,17018Christopher Columbus (WC),44060Columbus battles his Spanish colonists,44061Christopher Columbus,15603Columbus' ship - Santa Maria,28922Columbus' ships,28923Christopher Columbus leaves Spain,1651Christopher Columbus' Ships,1652Christopher Columbus sights land,1653Columbus lands in New World,1654Cortes welcomed by Montezuma,1658Cortes visits Montezuma,1659Coronado on horseback,1665Champlain in battle,1667Charles d'Orleans imprisoned in the Tower of London,14684Contemporary cartoon of Martin Luther,17003CORNYSH - My love she mourneth,45,45CARA - Io non compro piu speranza,12,18</text>
<text>Young Woman in Netherlandish Dress,2726</text>
</content>
<content>
<layer>background</layer>
<id>59</id>
<text>Jan van Eyck,nameJudith and Holofernes,273Judith and Holofernes by Andrea Mantegna,17046Jacopo della Quercia,nameJacopo Sansovino,nameJan van Scorel,nameJacopo Tintoretto,nameJohn Calvin,16321Jan Hus burned for heresy at the Council of Pisa - woodcut,14683Johann Gutenberg,15660Juan Ponce de Leon,44073Jacques Cartier,1663John Tetzel - a salesman of indulgences,17001JOSQUIN - Tu solus qui facis mirabilia,47,50JOSQUIN - Dominus regnavit,51,52JOSQUIN - Mille regretz,47,47JOSQUIN - Missa La sol fa re mi: Agnus Dei,12,14</text>
</content>
<content>
<layer>background</layer>
<id>66</id>
<text>Quentin Massys,nameQueen Elizabeth I,15906</text>
</content>
<content>
<layer>background</layer>
<id>58</id>
<text>Ill-Matched Lovers,648Ignatius of Loyola,17012Ignatius of Loyola appears before Pope Paul III,17013Isabella,15904Indians enslaved by the Spanish working in mines,44068Ivan Vasilievich - Grand Duke of Moscovy (Ivan the Terrible),17040ISAAC - Innsbruck ich muss dich lassen,55,56,</text>
<text>TEXT,Classic|34876,7039|Classic (1750-1803)|CLASSICTEXT,Carl Maria von Weber|14119,53835|Romantic (1803-1912)|CARL MARIA VON WEBERTEXT,Carl Maria von Weber|71032,53835|Romantic (1803-1912)|CARL MARIA VON WEBERTEXT,Charles Ives|72274,102834|Romantic (1803-1912)|CHARLES IVESTEXT,Charles Gounod|30703,96087|Romantic (1803-1912)|CHARLES GOUNODTEXT,Cesar Franck|30703,95694|Romantic (1803-1912)|CESAR FRANCKTEXT,Camille Saint-Saens|30703,94994|Romantic (1803-1912)|CAMILLE SAINT-SAENSTEXT,Czar Nicholas II|35110,5761|Romantic (1803-1912)|CZAR NICHOLAS IITEXT,Claude Debussy|38875,101368|Romantic (1803-1912)|CLAUDE DEBUSSYText,Classic Philosophers and Theologians|80748Text,Carnap|48044,283343|20th Century (1912-1991)|Rudolf CarnapTEXT,Comte|48044,159019|Romantic (1803-1912)|Auguste ComteTEXT,Calvin|9669,75721|Renaissance (1400-1600)|John CalvinTEXT,Calvin|9669,75721|Renaissance (1400-1600)|John CalvinTEXT,Calvin|74991,75721|Renaissance (1400-1600)|John CalvinTEXT,Calvin|74991,75721|Renaissance (1400-1600)|John CalvinTEXT,Calvin|75344,75721|Renaissance (1400-1600)|John CalvinTEXT,Calvin|75721,75721|Renaissance (1400-1600)|John CalvinTEXT,Calvin|75847,75721|Renaissance (1400-1600)|John CalvinTEXT,Calvin|76063,75721|Renaissance (1400-1600)|John CalvinTEXT,Calvin|76365,75721|Renaissance (1400-1600)|John CalvinTEXT,Calvin|76706,75721|Renaissance (1400-1600)|John CalvinTEXT,Calvin|77541,75721|Renaissance (1400-1600)|John CalvinTEXT,Calvin|78006,75721|Renaissance (1400-1600)|John CalvinTEXT,Calvin|81002,75721|Renaissance (1400-1600)|John CalvinTEXT,Calvin|81002,75721|Renaissance (1400-1600)|John CalvinTEXT,Calvin|81002,75721|Renaissance (1400-1600)|John CalvinTEXT,Calvin|81002,75721|Renaissance (1400-1600)|John CalvinTEXT,Calvin|81002,75721|Renaissance (1400-1600)|John CalvinTEXT,Calvin|133134,75721|Renaissance (1400-1600)|John CalvinTEXT,Calvin|133134,75721|Renaissance (1400-1600)|John CalvinTEXT,Calvin|135646,75721|Renaissance (1400-1600)|John CalvinTEXT,Calvin|46186,75721|Renaissance (1400-1600)|John CalvinTEXT,Calvin|9669,75721|Renaissance (1400-1600)|John CalvinTEXT,Calvin|9669,75721|Renaissance (1400-1600)|John CalvinTEXT,Cranmer|79415,45570|Renaissance (1400-1600)|Thomas CranmerTEXT,Cranmer|79415,45570|Renaissance (1400-1600)|Thomas CranmerTEXT,Cranmer|68767,45570|Renaissance (1400-1600)|Thomas CranmerTEXT,Cranmer|40164,45570|Renaissance (1400-1600)|Thomas CranmerTEXT,Cranmer|45570,45570|Renaissance (1400-1600)|Thomas CranmerTEXT,Cranmer|49625,45570|Renaissance (1400-1600)|Thomas CranmerTEXT,Cranmer|49898,45570|Renaissance (1400-1600)|Thomas CranmerTEXT,Cranmer|35050,45570|Renaissance (1400-1600)|Thomas CranmerTEXT,Cranmer|35050,45570|Renaissance (1400-1600)|Thomas CranmerTEXT,Cranmer|26546,45570|Renaissance (1400-1600)|Thomas CranmerTEXT,Cranmer|29754,45570|Renaissance (1400-1600)|Thomas CranmerTEXT,Cleanthes|9300,30083|Greece|CleanthesTEXT,Chrysippus|9300,30083|Greece|ChrysippusTEXT,Cicero|55824,29065|Rome|Cicero (Marcus Tullius Cicero)TEXT,Cicero|9300,29065|Rome|Cicero (Marcus Tullius Cicero)TEXT,Cicero|84911,29065|Rome|Cicero (Marcus Tullius Cicero)TEXT,Cicero|86895,29065|Rome|Cicero (Marcus Tullius Cicero)TEXT,constable|127005,23150|Romantic (1803-1912)|John ConstableTEXT,Caravaggio|120113,80483|Baroque (1600-1750)|Michelangelo da CaravaggioTEXT,Constantine|83760,54557|Middle Ages (400-1400)|ConstantineTEXT,Constantine|133134,54557|Middle Ages (400-1400)|ConstantineTEXT,Charles V|124354,38188|Renaissance (1400-1600)|Charles VTEXT,Charles V|124354,38188|Renaissance (1400-1600)|Charles VTEXT,Charles V|124462,38188|Renaissance (1400-1600)|Charles VTEXT,Charles V|74380,38188|Renaissance (1400-1600)|Charles VTEXT,Charles V|131979,38188|Renaissance (1400-1600)|Charles VTEXT,Charles V|132968,38188|Renaissance (1400-1600)|Charles VTEXT,Charles V|38188,38188|Renaissance (1400-1600)|Charles VTEXT,Charles V|44454,38188|Renaissance (1400-1600)|Charles VTEXT,Charles V|27223,38188|Renaissance (1400-1600)|Charles VTEXT,Charles V|27223,38188|Renaissance (1400-1600)|Charles VTEXT,Charles V|27223,38188|Renaissance (1400-1600)|Charles VTEXT,Charles V|27223,38188|Renaissance (1400-1600)|Charles VTEXT,Charles V|43024,38188|Renaissance (1400-1600)|Charles VTEXT,Charles V|43516,38188|Renaissance (1400-1600)|Charles VTEXT,Charles V|43911,38188|Renaissance (1400-1600)|Charles VTEXT,Charles V|45974,38188|Renaissance (1400-1600)|Charles VTEXT,Charles V|46186,38188|Renaissance (1400-1600)|Charles VTEXT,Charles V|25609,38188|Renaissance (1400-1600)|Charles VTEXT,Charles V|25875,38188|Renaissance (1400-1600)|Charles VTEXT,Charles V|26282,38188|Renaissance (1400-1600)|Charles VTEXT,Charles V|29185,38188|Renaissance (1400-1600)|Charles VTEXT,Charles V|32176,38188|Renaissance (1400-1600)|Charles VTEXT,Catherine de Medici|47011,47011|Renaissance (1400-1600)|Catherine de MediciTEXT,Cosimo de Medici|55824,7039|Renaissance (1400-1600)|Cosimo de MediciTEXT,Cosimo de Medici|105475,7039|Renaissance (1400-1600)|Cosimo de MediciTEXT,Cosimo de Medici|105475,7039|Renaissance (1400-1600)|Cosimo de MediciTEXT,Cosimo de Medici|119809,7039|Renaissance (1400-1600)|Cosimo de MediciTEXT,Cosimo de Medici|84043,7039|Renaissance (1400-1600)|Cosimo de MediciTEXT,Cosimo de Medici|10153,7039|Renaissance (1400-1600)|Cosimo de MediciTEXT,Cosimo de Medici|47011,7039|Renaissance (1400-1600)|Cosimo de MediciTEXT,Cosimo de Medici|47486,7039|Renaissance (1400-1600)|Cosimo de MediciTEXT,Corinthian|57684,41568|Greece| CorinthianTEXT,Corinthian|96545,41568|Greece| CorinthianText,Correggio|119515,118662|Renaissance (1400-1600)|Correggio (Antonio Allegri)TEXT,chiaroscuro|104972,104772|Renaissance (1400-1600)|chiaroscuroTEXT,chiaroscuro|106685,104772|Renaissance (1400-1600)|chiaroscuroTEXT,Correggio|118662,118662|Renaissance (1400-1600)|Correggio (Antonio Allegri)Text,Campin|88608,89180|Renaissance (1400-1600)| Robert CampinText,Christ|89069,13258|Rome|JESUS OF NAZARETHText,Chambourd Palace|27899,70948|Renaissance (1400-1600)|Chambourd PalaceText,Christopher Wren|98908,95702|Baroque (1600-1750)|Sir Christopher WrenText,Chorale|58638,46378|Renaissance (1400-1600)|choraleText,carols|11832,58638|Renaissance (1400-1600)|CarolText,consort music|62362,59521|Renaissance (1400-1600)|Consort musicText,Cantus Firmus|61020,54278|Middle Ages (400-1400)|cantus firmusText,Claudio Montiverde|63996,54561|Renaissance (1400-1600)Text,Claudio Monteverdi|63996,54561|Renaissance (1400-1600)|Claudio MonteverdiText,Cosimo de Medici|92890,7039|Renaissance (1400-1600)|Cosimo de MediciText,Christ|94210,13258|Rome|JESUS OF NAZARETHText,Cubists|95787,6484|20th Century (1912-1991)|CubismText,Charles the Bold|98100,44136|Renaissance (1400-1600)|Charles the BoldText,Charles VII|98313,8942|Renaissance (1400-1600)|Charles VIIText,Christ|100394,13258|Rome|JESUS OF NAZARETHText,Christ|102681,13258|Rome|JESUS OF NAZARETHText,Cesare Borgia|104473,20739|Renaissance (1400-1600)|Caesare BorgiaText,Christ|105475,13258|Rome|JESUS OF NAZARETHText,Charles I|115780,115780|Renaissance (1400-1600)Text,Clement VII|117768,26282|Renaissance (1400-1600)Text,Clement VII|117768,26282|Renaissance (1400-1600)|Clement VIIText,Carracci|118815,81161|Baroque (1600-1750)|Annibale CarracciText,Council of Trent|119553,39727|Renaissance (1400-1600)|The Council Of TrentText,Council of Trent|121038,39727|Renaissance (1400-1600)|The Council Of TrentText,Clement VII|127005,26282|Renaissance (1400-1600)|Clement VIIText,Cosimo I|128892,47011|Renaissance (1400-1600)Text,Cortes|44454,43024|Renaissance (1400-1600)|Hernan CortesText,Charles II|44573,24971|Baroque (1600-1750)|Charles IIText,Charles VI|44573,31149|Baroque (1600-1750)|Charles VIText,Clement VII|47011,26282|Renaissance (1400-1600)|Clement VIIText,Catherine de Medici|47011,25609|Renaissance (1400-1600)Text,Clement VII|49625,26282|Renaissance (1400-1600)|Clement VIIText,Counter Reformation|51032Text,Curia|50460,81831|Renaissance (1400-1600)|the papal curia (court)Text,Copernicus|55824,131665|Renaissance (1400-1600)|Nicolaus CopernicusText,Christopher Columbus|139044,45524|Renaissance (1400-1600)|Christopher ColumbusText,Calvinism|142031,76063|Renaissance (1400-1600)|CalvinismText,Council of Trent|142031,39727|Renaissance (1400-1600)|The Council Of TrentText,Columbus|133861,45524|Renaissance (1400-1600)|Christopher ColumbusText,Cardano|134123,133572|Renaissance (1400-1600)|Girolamo CardanoText,Copernicus|134427,131665|Renaissance (1400-1600)|Nicolaus CopernicusText,Christ|73735,13258|Rome|JESUS OF NAZARETHText,Calvin|133134,76365|Renaissance (1400-1600)|ServetusText,Clement VII|78710,26282|Renaissance (1400-1600)|Clement VIIText,Christ|86895,13258|Rome|JESUS OF NAZARETHText,Charles the Bold|13935,44136|Renaissance (1400-1600)|Charles the BoldText,Constantinople|15668,59852|Middle Ages (400-1400)|ConstantinopleText,Council of Trent|55399,39727|Renaissance (1400-1600)|The Council Of TrentText,Clement Janequin|28872,62362|Renaissance (1400-1600)|CLEMENT JANEQUINText,Claude le Jeune|35831,62933|Renaissance (1400-1600)|CLAUDE LE JEUNEText,Claudio Monteverdi|36270,54561|Renaissance (1400-1600)|Claudio MonteverdiText,Conrad Gesner|146575,134308|Renaissance (1400-1600)|Conrad GesnerText,Copernicus|64844,131665|Renaissance (1400-1600)|Nicolaus Copernicus</text>
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<text>TEXT,Sturm und Drang|37783,23497|Classic (1750-1803)|STURM UND DRANGTEXT,Supernatural Romanticism|47697TEXT,Sturm und Drang|53104,31364|Classic (1750-1803)|STURM UND DRANGTEXT,Symphony No. 5|53402,65180|Romantic (1803-1912)|SYMPHONY NO. 5TEXT,Scott|61640,84239|Romantic (1803-1912)|SCOTTTEXT,Sir Walter Scott|80966,61640|Romantic (1803-1912)|SIR WALTER SCOTTTEXT,Stockton and Darlington|15807TEXT,Sir Robert Peel|17024,80570|Romantic (1803-1912)|SIR ROBERT PEELTEXT,Sir Edward Elgar|72274,100129|Romantic (1803-1912)|SIR EDWARD ELGARTEXT,Sir Edward Elgar|110846,100129|Romantic (1803-1912)|SIR EDWARD ELGARTEXT,Stephen Foster|31368,61640|Romantic (1803-1912)|STEPHEN FOSTERTEXT,Sir Edward Elgar|58166,100129|Romantic (1803-1912)|SIR EDWARD ELGARTEXT,Sturm und Drang|88751,23497|Classic (1750-1803)|STURM UND DRANGTEXT,Sergei Rachmaninoff|39714,100012|Romantic (1803-1912)|SERGEI RACHMANINOFFTEXT,S.S. Titanic|41546,80823|Romantic (1803-1912)|S.S. TITANICText,Socialism|209502,148983|Romantic (1803-1912)|SOCIALISMText,Social Darwinism|209502,151645|Romantic (1803-1912)|SOCIAL DARWINISMTEXT,Sartre|48044,288666|20th Century (1912-1991)|Jean-Paul SartreTEXT,Schlick|48044,289168|20th Century (1912-1991)|Moritz SchlickTEXT,Schlick|23727,289168|20th Century (1912-1991)|Moritz SchlickTEXT,Saint-Simon|48044,158193|Romantic (1803-1912)|Comte de Saint-SimonTEXT,Schelling|14895,158505|Romantic (1803-1912)|Friedrich von SchellingTEXT,Sidgwick|14895,162034|Romantic (1803-1912)|Henry SidgwickTEXT,Spinoza|14895,72945|Baroque (1600-1750)|Baruch (or Benedictus de) SpinozaTEXT,Sir Francis Bacon|134308,69294|Baroque (1600-1750)|Sir Francis BaconTEXT,Sir Thomas More|95221,85168|Renaissance (1400-1600)|Sir Thomas MoreTEXT,Sir Thomas More|9669,85168|Renaissance (1400-1600)|Sir Thomas MoreTEXT,Sir Thomas More|85168,85168|Renaissance (1400-1600)|Sir Thomas MoreTEXT,Sir Thomas More|86407,85168|Renaissance (1400-1600)|Sir Thomas MoreTEXT,Sir Thomas More|68404,85168|Renaissance (1400-1600)|Sir Thomas MoreTEXT,Sir Thomas More|68889,85168|Renaissance (1400-1600)|Sir Thomas MoreTEXT,Sir Thomas More|25435,85168|Renaissance (1400-1600)|Sir Thomas MoreTEXT,Sir Thomas More|29754,85168|Renaissance (1400-1600)|Sir Thomas MoreTEXT,SCHOLASTICISM|9669TEXT,scholasticism|72218TEXT,scholasticism|83333TEXT,Siger de Brabant|9669,119886|Middle Ages (400-1400)|Siger de BrabantTEXT,St. Thomas Aquinas|83622,121243|Middle Ages (400-1400)|St. Thomas AquinasTEXT,Solomon ibn Gabirol|9669TEXT,STOICISM|9300,11450|Rome|STOICISMTEXT,St. Jerome|101100,3844|Middle Ages (400-1400)|St. Jerome (Eusebius Hieronymus)TEXT,St. Augustine|124841,29298|Middle Ages (400-1400)|St. Augustine of HippoTEXT,St. Augustine|125758,29298|Middle Ages (400-1400)|St. Augustine of HippoTEXT,St. Augustine|73349,29298|Middle Ages (400-1400)|St. Augustine of HippoTEXT,St. Augustine|84911,29298|Middle Ages (400-1400)|St. Augustine of HippoTEXT,Socrates|84911,23226|Greece|SocratesTEXT,Socrates|86895,23226|Greece|SocratesTEXT,symbolism|88335,4161|20th Century (1912-1991)|SymbolismTEXT,symbolism|88608,4161|20th Century (1912-1991)|SymbolismTEXT,symbolism|89180,4161|20th Century (1912-1991)|SymbolismTEXT,symbolism|98100,4161|20th Century (1912-1991)|SymbolismTEXT,symbolism|100204,4161|20th Century (1912-1991)|SymbolismTEXT,Seneca|9300,30466|Rome|Seneca (Lucius Anneaus SenecaTEXT,Seneca|9300,30466|Rome|Seneca (Lucius Anneaus SenecaTEXT,Sextus Empiricus|9300,31955|Rome|Sextus EmpiricusTEXT,Sandro Botticelli|56949,105220|Renaissance (1400-1600)|Sandro BotticelliTEXT,Sandro Botticelli|105220,105220|Renaissance (1400-1600)|Sandro BotticelliTEXT,Sandro Botticelli|23124,105220|Renaissance (1400-1600)|Sandro BotticelliText,Scholastics|9300,116463|Middle Ages (400-1400)|SCHOLASTICISM (NEOARISTOTELIANISM)TEXT,STURM UND DRANG|53079,23497|Classic (1750-1803)|Sturm und DrangText,sfumato|106685,104772|Renaissance (1400-1600)|sfumatoText,St. Peter's|72218,7039|Baroque (1600-1750)|St. Peter'sText,St. Peter's|73735,7039|Baroque (1600-1750)|St. Peter'sText,St. Peter's|20739,7039|Baroque (1600-1750)|St. Peter'sText,St. Peter's|45105,7039|Baroque (1600-1750)|St. Peter'sText,Stefano Sassetta|11617,93743|Renaissance (1400-1600)|Stefano SassettaText,Sebastiano del Piombo|23124,64511|Renaissance (1400-1600)|Sebastiano del PiomboText,served the Vatican all his life|63259Text,St. Peter's|58502,7039|Baroque (1600-1750)|St. Peter'sText,Saint Francis|93743,120619|Middle Ages (400-1400)|St. Francis of AssisiText,St. Peter's|96453,7039|Baroque (1600-1750)|St. Peter'sText,Savonarola|116419,47850|Renaissance (1400-1600)|Girolamo SavonarolaText,St. Peter's|118106,7039|Baroque (1600-1750)|St. Peter'sText,St. Stephen|125758,13974|Rome|StephenText,Sansovino|127250,121147|Renaissance (1400-1600)|Jacopo SansovinoText,Sixtus VI|128028,128028|Renaissance (1400-1600)Text,St. Peter's|128028,7039|Baroque (1600-1750)|St. Peter'sText,Shakespeare|66714,54868|Renaissance (1400-1600)|William ShakespeareText,Shakespeare|68767,54868|Renaissance (1400-1600)|William ShakespeareText,Shakespeare|49625,54868|Renaissance (1400-1600)|William ShakespeareText,Shakespeare|26546,54868|Renaissance (1400-1600)|William ShakespeareText,Shakespeare|80147,54868|Renaissance (1400-1600)|William ShakespeareText,Sir Francis Drake|51923,69953|Renaissance (1400-1600)|Sir Francis DrakeText,Sir Walter Raleigh|51923,37360|Renaissance (1400-1600)|Sir Walter RaleighText,Shakespeare|54561,54868|Renaissance (1400-1600)Text,Spanish explorers|56140,27223|Renaissance (1400-1600)|SPANISH EXPLORERSText,Servetus|132751,133134|Renaissance (1400-1600)|Michael ServetusText,scholastics|65446,116463|Middle Ages (400-1400)|SCHOLASTICISM (NEOARISTOTELIANISM)Text,Savonarola|72535,47850|Renaissance (1400-1600)|Girolamo SavonarolaText,Savonarola|87174,47850|Renaissance (1400-1600)|Girolamo SavonarolaText,Savonarola|105220,47850|Renaissance (1400-1600)|Girolamo SavonarolaText,St. Paul|73349,13974|Rome|PAUL -- MISSIONARY TO THE GENTILES Text,Stoics|83622,11450|Rome|STOICISMText,Stoics and Epicureans|83622,11450|Rome|STOICISMText,Sylvester I|83760,5251|RomeText,scholastics|84911,116463|Middle Ages (400-1400)|SCHOLASTICISM (NEOARISTOTELIANISM)Text,St. Paul|84911,13974|Rome|PAUL -- MISSIONARY TO THE GENTILES Text,scholastic|85964,116463|Middle Ages (400-1400)|SCHOLASTICISM (NEOARISTOTELIANISM)Text,SPANISH EXPLORERS|31260,27223|Renaissance (1400-1600)|SPANISH EXPLORERSText,Spanish Armada|37360,51562|Renaissance (1400-1600)|Spanish Armada</text>
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<text>TEXT,Intro|46918,32608|Classic (1750-1803)|INTROTEXT,Intro|48947,7039|Romantic (1803-1912)|INTROTEXT,Impressionism|60032,46534|Romantic (1803-1912)|IMPRESSIONISMTEXT,Idylls of the King|18806,84239|Romantic (1803-1912)|IDYLLS OF THE KINGTEXT,Impressionism|29531,46534|Romantic (1803-1912)|IMPRESSIONISMTEXT,Impressionism|103431,46534|Romantic (1803-1912)|IMPRESSIONISMTEXT,Inquisition|126704,117980|Middle Ages (400-1400)|THE INQUISITIONTEXT,Inquisition|82364,117980|Middle Ages (400-1400)|THE INQUISITIONTEXT,Inquisition|135332,117980|Middle Ages (400-1400)|THE INQUISITIONTEXT,Inquisition|135646,117980|Middle Ages (400-1400)|THE INQUISITIONTEXT,Inquisition|21201,117980|Middle Ages (400-1400)|THE INQUISITIONTEXT,Inquisition|50460,117980|Middle Ages (400-1400)|THE INQUISITIONTEXT,Inquisition|51032,117980|Middle Ages (400-1400)|THE INQUISITIONTEXT,Inquisition|51262,117980|Middle Ages (400-1400)|THE INQUISITIONTEXT,Inquisition|55399,117980|Middle Ages (400-1400)|THE INQUISITIONTEXT,Inigo Jones|127896,79303|Baroque (1600-1750)|Inigo JonesPalestrinachord built in 3rdsGott1600)|HISTORICAL OVERVIEW OF PHILOSOPHICAL AND THEOLOGICAL THOUGHTREFORMATIONLEFT-WING REFORMATIONREFORMATIONREFORMATIONor CATHOLIC REFORMATIONText,Innocent VIII|107638,14797|Renaissance (1400-1600)|Innocent VIIIText,Innocent VIII|108634,14797|Renaissance (1400-1600)| Innocent VIIIand 1438 to 1740Text,Isaac|47850,61633|Renaissance (1400-1600)|HEINRICH ISAACPALESTRINACATHOLIC REFORMATIONText,indulgences|50460,73735|Renaissance (1400-1600)|indulgencesMONTEVERDIText,Italian explorers|56140,45524|Renaissance (1400-1600)|ITALIAN EXPLORERSsculpturemusic(1400-1600)Text,Italian painter|131259,103997|Renaissance (1400-1600)|Leonardo da VinciGoebbelsLuxembourgCONSTANTINEPseudo-Areopagite)BooksPALESTRINASWEELINCKText,Ivan III|15936part of the Byzantine EmpireFabricius ab Aquapendenteof Philosophical and Theological Thought</text>
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<text>TEXT,The American Civil War|47162TEXT,The Revolutions of 1848|47162TEXT,the neo-Gothic revival|47697,45117|Romantic (1803-1912)|THE NEO-GOTHIC REVIVALTEXT,the Industrial Revolution|92612TEXT,The Revolutions of 1848|59223TEXT,The Congress of Vienna|9911,42786|Romantic (1803-1912)|THE CONGRESS OF VIENNATEXT,Thomas Jefferson|10636,27191|Classic (1750-1803)|THOMAS JEFFERSONTEXT,The Grimm Brothers|11760,61216|Romantic (1803-1912)|THE GRIMM BROTHERSTEXT,The Legend of Sleepy Hollow|12096TEXT,Theodore Gericault|12968,49378|Romantic (1803-1912)|THEODORE GERICAULTTEXT,The Romantic Orchestra|64634TEXT,the neo-Gothic revival|57364,45117|Romantic (1803-1912)|THE NEO-GOTHIC REVIVALTEXT,the Industrial Revolution|69180TEXT,the neo-Gothic revival|20610,45117|Romantic (1803-1912)|THE NEO-GOTHIC REVIVALTEXT,the Revolutions of 1848|72940TEXT,The Castle of Otranto|75789,74411|Romantic (1803-1912)|THE CASTLE OF OTRANTOTEXT,The Rococo|88751,36098|Baroque (1600-1750)|THE ROCOCOText,The Roman Catholic Church|209502Text,The Renaissance: An Introduction|64844TEXT,Thomas Cranmer|68767,45570|Renaissance (1400-1600)|Thomas CranmerTEXT,Thomas Cranmer|68767,45570|Renaissance (1400-1600)|Thomas CranmerTEXT,Thomas Cranmer|40164,45570|Renaissance (1400-1600)|Thomas CranmerTEXT,Thomas Cranmer|45570,45570|Renaissance (1400-1600)|Thomas CranmerTEXT,Thomas Cranmer|49625,45570|Renaissance (1400-1600)|Thomas CranmerTEXT,Thomas Cranmer|26546,45570|Renaissance (1400-1600)|Thomas CranmerTEXT,Thomas Cranmer|26546,45570|Renaissance (1400-1600)|Thomas CranmerTEXT,Thomas Cranmer|29754,45570|Renaissance (1400-1600)|Thomas CranmerTEXT,Theophrastus|9300,28483|Greece|TheophrastusTEXT,Theophrastus|134123,28483|Greece|TheophrastusTEXT,Thomas Aquinas|9669,139142|Middle Ages (400-1400)|St. Thomas AquinasTEXT,Thomas Aquinas|83622,139142|Middle Ages (400-1400)|St. Thomas AquinasTEXT,Thomas Aquinas|84640,139142|Middle Ages (400-1400)|St. Thomas AquinasTEXT,Thomas Aquinas|84911,139142|Middle Ages (400-1400)|St. Thomas AquinasTEXT,The Louvre|66323,70948|Renaissance (1400-1600)|The LouvreTEXT,the Louvre|108337,70948|Renaissance (1400-1600)|The LouvreTEXT,The Louvre|70948,70948|Renaissance (1400-1600)|The LouvreTEXT,the Louvre|71611,70948|Renaissance (1400-1600)|The LouvreTEXT,The Louvre|27899,70948|Renaissance (1400-1600)|The LouvreTEXT,Titian|115048,123929|Renaissance (1400-1600)|Titian (Tiziano Vecellio)TEXT,Titian|121715,123929|Renaissance (1400-1600)|Titian (Tiziano Vecellio)TEXT,Titian|123929,123929|Renaissance (1400-1600)|Titian (Tiziano Vecellio)TEXT,Titian|124354,123929|Renaissance (1400-1600)|Titian (Tiziano Vecellio)TEXT,Titian|124462,123929|Renaissance (1400-1600)|Titian (Tiziano Vecellio)TEXT,Titian|124980,123929|Renaissance (1400-1600)|Titian (Tiziano Vecellio)TEXT,Titian|125365,123929|Renaissance (1400-1600)|Titian (Tiziano Vecellio)TEXT,Titian|44857,123929|Renaissance (1400-1600)|Titian (Tiziano Vecellio)TEXT,Titian|44857,123929|Renaissance (1400-1600)|Titian (Tiziano Vecellio)TEXT,Titian|52951,123929|Renaissance (1400-1600)|Titian (Tiziano Vecellio)TEXT,Titian|53846,123929|Renaissance (1400-1600)|Titian (Tiziano Vecellio)TEXT,Titian|35103,123929|Renaissance (1400-1600)|Titian (Tiziano Vecellio)TEXT,Tintoretto|91638,124841|Renaissance (1400-1600)|Tintoretto (Jacopo Robusti)TEXT,titanic|53079,80823|Romantic (1803-1912)|S.S. TitanicText,The Rohan Master|11084,89760|Renaissance (1400-1600)|The Rohan MasterTEXT,the 100 Years War|42689,49409|Middle Ages (400-1400)|The 100 Years WarTEXT,the 100 Years War|8942,49409|Middle Ages (400-1400)|The 100 Years WarTEXT,the 100 Years War|66714,49409|Middle Ages (400-1400)|The 100 Years WarTEXT,the 100 Years War|67266,49409|Middle Ages (400-1400)|The 100 Years WarText,Tilman Riemenschneider|22540,103434|Renaissance (1400-1600)|Tilman RiemenschneiderText,Taddeo Zuccaro|23124,64511|Renaissance (1400-1600)|Taddeo ZuccaroText,The View of Toledo |126286,40685|Renaissance (1400-1600)|View of ToledoText,The Reformation|142774,72218|Renaissance (1400-1600)|THE REFORMATIONText,The Swiss Reformation|142774,74991|Renaissance (1400-1600)|THE SWISS REFORMATIONText,The Scottish Reformation|142774Text,The English Reformation|142774Text,The Counter Reformation|142774TEXT,Tower of London|85490,53323|Middle Ages (400-1400)|Tower of LondonTEXT,Tower of London|67266,53323|Middle Ages (400-1400)|Tower of LondonText,Thomas Munzer|77044,30263|Renaissance (1400-1600)Text,the first polyphonic Mass|58502,70974|Middle Ages (400-1400)|the first polyphonic MassText,triad|60863,60051|Renaissance (1400-1600)|the triadText,triadic|61020,60051|Renaissance (1400-1600)|the triadText,triad|11832,60051|Renaissance (1400-1600)|the triadText,triad|56643,60051|Renaissance (1400-1600)|the triadText,The Fibonacci Series|57317,49053|Middle Ages (400-1400)|The Fibonacci SeriesText,transfigured|91801,5251|Biblical HistoryText,tondo|108337,91921|Renaissance (1400-1600)|tondoText,the Medici|97690,38780|Renaissance (1400-1600)|The MediciText,the Netherlands|102964,37721|Renaissance (1400-1600)|The NetherlandsText,The Lutheran Reformation|142774Text,The Swiss Reformation|142774,74991|Renaissance (1400-1600)|THE SWISS REFORMATIONText,The Radical or Left-Wing Reformation|142774Text,The English Reformation|142774,78710|Renaissance (1400-1600)|THE ENGLISH REFORMATION Text,The Scottish Reformation|142774Text,The Counter Reformation|142774Text,Taddeo|129258,64511|Renaissance (1400-1600)|Taddeo ZuccaroText,Thirty Years War|142325,16168|Baroque (1600-1750)|The 30 Years WarText,the Netherlands|44454,37721|Renaissance (1400-1600)|The NetherlandsText,the Medici|44573,38780|Renaissance (1400-1600)|The MediciText,Tudor|47011,47264|Renaissance (1400-1600)|House of TudorText,Thomas Tallis|68767,61939|Renaissance (1400-1600)|THOMAS TALLISText,Thomas Tallis|28464,61939|Renaissance (1400-1600)|THOMAS TALLISText,Thomas Cromwell|69267,49898|Renaissance (1400-1600)|Thomas CromwellText,the Lutheran Church|45105,73012|Renaissance (1400-1600)|THE LUTHERAN REFORMATIONText,The English Reformation|46378,40164|Renaissance (1400-1600)|The English ReformationText,The English Reformation|51262,40164|Renaissance (1400-1600)|The English ReformationText,The 30 Years War|51262,16168|Baroque (1600-1750)|The 30 Years WarText,transubstantiation|50694,5251|RomeText,Thomas Morley|52467,63996|Renaissance (1400-1600)|THOMAS MORLEYText,Titian (Tiziano Vecelli)|53846,123929|Renaissance (1400-1600)|Titian (Tiziano Vecellio)Text,the Medici|137584,38780|Renaissance (1400-1600)|The MediciText,the Spanish conquerors|139570,27223|Renaissance (1400-1600)|SPANISH EXPLORERSText,The Netherlands|141498,37721|Renaissance (1400-1600)|The NetherlandsText,the scientific method|64844,134308|Renaissance (1400-1600)|the scientific methodText,Tartaglia|133572,134123|Renaissance (1400-1600)|Niccolo TartagliaText,The English Reformation|78710,40164|Renaissance (1400-1600)|The English ReformationText,The Restoration|81201,23700|Baroque (1600-1750)|The RestorationText,the Council of Trent|81831,39727|Renaissance (1400-1600)|The Council Of TrentText,the Medici|84911,38780|Renaissance (1400-1600)|The MediciText,the index of forbidden books|86407Text,the Council of Trent|86407,39727|Renaissance (1400-1600)|The Council Of TrentText,the Medici|87174,38780|Renaissance (1400-1600)|The MediciText,the 100 Years War|6534,49409|Middle Ages (400-1400)|The 100 Years WarText,the Netherlands|13935,37721|Renaissance (1400-1600)|The NetherlandsText,the Habsburgs|19332,38188|Renaissance (1400-1600)|The HabsburgsText,the Netherlands|20680,37721|Renaissance (1400-1600)|The NetherlandsText,the Medici|14797,38780|Renaissance (1400-1600)|The MediciText,The English Reformation|25435,40164|Renaissance (1400-1600)|The English ReformationText,Tielman Susato|28951,62362|Renaissance (1400-1600)|TIELMAN SUSATOText,The English Reformation|29185,40164|Renaissance (1400-1600)|The English ReformationText,The Council of Trent|32398,39727|Renaissance (1400-1600)|The Council Of TrentText,Thomas Morley|35495,63996|Renaissance (1400-1600)|THOMAS MORLEYText,Tomas Luis de Victoria|36270,63020|Renaissance (1400-1600)|TOMAS LUIS DE VICTORIAText,Tycho Brahe|147733,135754|Renaissance (1400-1600)|Tycho BraheText,Thomas Tallis|68404,61939|Renaissance (1400-1600)|THOMAS TALLISText,The Scottish Reformation|142774,142774|Renaissance (1400-1600),No Link Notes Entered…Text,The Scottish Reformation|142774,78006|Renaissance (1400-1600)|THE SCOTTISH REFORMATION,No Link Notes Entered…Text,The Scottish Reformation |142774,78006|Renaissance (1400-1600)|THE SCOTTISH REFORMATION,No Link Notes Entered…Text,The English Reformation |142774,78710|Renaissance (1400-1600)|THE ENGLISH REFORMATION,No Link Notes Entered…Text,The Counter Reformation |142774,81447|Renaissance (1400-1600)|THE COUNTER-REFORMATION,No Link Notes Entered…</text>
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<id>64</id>
<text>WAR1848ROMANTICISMREVOLUTION1848COLERIDGEGOETHEHOLLOWDARLINGTONORCHESTRAORCHESTRAREVOLUTIONREVOLUTIONKORSAKOV1848EUROPE1851TEXT,OTTO VON BISMARCK|113651,73894|Romantic (1803-1912)|OTTO VON BISMARCKTEXT,Otto von Bismarck|26210,73894|Romantic (1803-1912)|OTTO VON BISMARCKTCHAIKOVSKYKORSAKOVTEXT,Otto von Bismarck|58166,73894|Romantic (1803-1912)|OTTO VON BISMARCKMONARCHSIIIText,Owen|48044,149262|Romantic (1803-1912)|Robert Owen(NEOARISTOTELIANISM)(NEOARISTOTELIANISM)(NEOARISTOTELIANISM)(NEOARISTOTELIANISM)Great)Erasmus)Erasmus)Erasmus)ibn Rushd)Avicebron)MagnificentMagnificentMagnificentMagnificentMagnificentMagnificentMagnificentMagnificentTEXT,Oliver Cromwell|81201,23371|Baroque (1600-1750)|Oliver CromwellTEXT,Oliver Cromwell|67909,23371|Baroque (1600-1750)|Oliver CromwellPrimaticcioText,one-point perspective|93053,93053|Renaissance (1400-1600)Text,Ottavino dei Petrucci|145919,145919|Renaissance (1400-1600)Text,Ottaviano dei Petrucci|145919,131259|Renaissance (1400-1600)|Ottaviano dei PetrucciText,Overview of Philosophical and Theological Thought|142774</text>
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<content>
<layer>background</layer>
<id>63</id>
<text>TEXT,Nationalism|47162,44910|Romantic (1803-1912)|NATIONALISMTEXT,NATURE ROMANTICISM|47415,43116|Romantic (1803-1912)|NATURE ROMANTICISMTEXT,Nature Romanticism|49458,43116|Romantic (1803-1912)|NATURE ROMANTICISMTEXT,Night on Bald Mountain|96263,85277|Romantic (1803-1912)|NIGHT ON BALD MOUNTAINTEXT,Napoleon|86272,28556|Classic (1750-1803)|NAPOLEONTEXT,Nature Romanticism|87132,43116|Romantic (1803-1912)|NATURE ROMANTICISMTEXT,Nationalism|69376,44910|Romantic (1803-1912)|NATIONALISMTEXT,Napoleon III|17368,73894|Romantic (1803-1912)|NAPOLEON IIITEXT,Nikolai Rimsky-Korsakov|71625TEXT,Napoleon III|73894,83868|Romantic (1803-1912)|NAPOLEON IIITEXT,Napoleon III|25887,73894|Romantic (1803-1912)|NAPOLEON IIITEXT,Nathaniel Currier|30141,87132|Romantic (1803-1912)|NATHANIEL CURRIERTEXT,Nikolai Rimsky-Korsakov|31575TEXT,Neurath|48044,286867|20th Century (1912-1991)|Otto NeurathTEXT,Nicholas of Cusa|83191,83191|Renaissance (1400-1600)|Nicholas of CusaTEXT,Nicholas of Cusa|86068,83191|Renaissance (1400-1600)|Nicholas of CusaTEXT,Nicholas of Cusa|131038,83191|Renaissance (1400-1600)|Nicholas of CusaTEXT,Nicholas of Cusa|12548,83191|Renaissance (1400-1600)|Nicholas of CusaTEXT,Nicholas of Cusa|86068,83191|Renaissance (1400-1600)|Nicholas of CusaTEXT,Nicholas of Cusa|131038,83191|Renaissance (1400-1600)|Nicholas of CusaTEXT,Nicholas of Cusa|12548,83191|Renaissance (1400-1600)|Nicholas of CusaTEXT,Nicholas of Cusa|83191,83191|Renaissance (1400-1600)|Nicholas of CusaTEXT,Nicholas of Cusa|86068,83191|Renaissance (1400-1600)|Nicholas of CusaTEXT,Nicholas of Cusa|131038,83191|Renaissance (1400-1600)|Nicholas of CusaTEXT,Nicholas of Cusa|12548,83191|Renaissance (1400-1600)|Nicholas of CusaOVERVIEWText,Navigators and Explorers|64844,39366|Renaissance (1400-1600)|Navigators and ExplorersTEXT,Niccolo Machiavelli|85168,87174|Renaissance (1400-1600)|Niccolo MachiavellTEXT,Niccolo Machiavelli|87174,87174|Renaissance (1400-1600)|Niccolo MachiavellTEXT,Niccolo Machiavelli|21990,87174|Renaissance (1400-1600)|Niccolo MachiavellTEXT,Niccolo Machiavelli|30495,87174|Renaissance (1400-1600)|Niccolo MachiavellTEXT,NEOARISTOTELIANISM|9669TEXT,NEOPLATONISM|9669,106990|Middle Ages (400-1400)|NEOPLATONISMText,Neoplatonists|9300,106990|Middle Ages (400-1400)|NEOPLATONISMTEXT,Napoleon|44573,28556|Classic (1750-1803)| Napoleon BonapartebusinessSanzio)— Robert CampinLimbourg Brothers (Pol| Harmann and Hennequin)BurgundyPinturicchioSalviati1600)|HISTORICAL OVERVIEW OF PHILOSOPHICAL AND THEOLOGICAL THOUGHTREFORMATIONLEFT-WING REFORMATIONREFORMATIONREFORMATIONREFORMATIONText,Netherlandish|61020,37721|Renaissance (1400-1600)|The NetherlandsText,Netherlandish|62933,37721|Renaissance (1400-1600)|The NetherlandsText,Netherlandish|103434,37721|Renaissance (1400-1600)|The NetherlandsText,Netherlandish|71611,37721|Renaissance (1400-1600)|The NetherlandsText,Nicholas V|106281,5251|Middle Ages (400-1400)Text,Neo-Platonism|116419,106990|Middle Ages (400-1400)|NEOPLATONISMText,Newton|131979,121922|Baroque (1600-1750)|Sir Isaac NewtonText,Newton|64844,121922|Baroque (1600-1750)|Sir Isaac NewtonText,Niccolo Tartaglia|146925,134123|Renaissance (1400-1600)|Niccolo TartagliaText,Nicolaus Copernicus|146251,131665|Renaissance (1400-1600)|Nicolaus CopernicusText,Nicholas of Cusa|145305,131038|Renaissance (1400-1600)|Nicholas of CusaText,Navigators and Explorers|148442,39366|Renaissance (1400-1600)|Navigators and ExplorersText,Navigators and Explorers|148523,39366|Renaissance (1400-1600)|Navigators and ExplorersText,Navigators and Explorers|25234,39366|Renaissance (1400-1600)|Navigators and Explorers</text>
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<content>
<layer>background</layer>
<id>107</id>
<text>TEXT,FOLK ROMANTICISM|47415,43349|Romantic (1803-1912)|FOLK ROMANTICISM,Original 1.0 LinkTEXT,age of the virtuoso|48029,43554|Romantic (1803-1912)|AGE OF THE VIRTUOSO,Original 1.0 LinkTEXT,POST-IMPRESSIONISM|92947,46629|Romantic (1803-1912)|POST-IMPRESSIONISM,Original 1.0 TEXT,IMPRESSIONISM|92947,46534|Romantic (1803-1912)|IMPRESSIONISM,Original 1.0 LinkTEXT,Impressionism|49378,46534|Romantic (1803-1912)|IMPRESSIONISM,Original 1.0 LinkTEXT,The neo-Gothic revival|93427,45117|Romantic (1803-1912)|THE NEO-GOTHIC REVIVAL,Original TEXT,age of the virtuoso|50422,43554|Romantic (1803-1912)|AGE OF THE VIRTUOSO,Original 1.0 LinkTEXT,RICHARD STRAUSS|98356,65940|Romantic (1803-1912)|RICHARD STRAUSS,Original 1.0 LinkTEXT,GEORGE III|9033,26685|Classic (1750-1803)|GEORGE III,Original 1.0 LinkTEXT,The Duke of Wellington|9033,23663|Romantic (1803-1912)|THE DUKE OF WELLINGTON,Original TEXT,Talleyrand|9911,58542|Romantic (1803-1912)|TALLEYRAND,Original 1.0 LinkTEXT,Emperor Napoleon I|9911,28556|Classic (1750-1803)|EMPEROR NAPOLEON I,Original 1.0 LinkTEXT,Samuel Taylor Coleridge|11236,59799|Romantic (1803-1912)|SAMUEL TAYLOR TEXT,Johann Wolfgang von Goethe|11760,45516|Classic (1750-1803)|JOHANN WOLFGANG VON TEXT,Francisco de Goya|12968,48947|Romantic (1803-1912)|FRANCISCO DE GOYA,Original 1.0 LinkTEXT,Franz Schubert|14119,53562|Romantic (1803-1912)|FRANZ SCHUBERT,Original 1.0 LinkTEXT,Niccolo Paganini|14546,54849|Romantic (1803-1912)|NICCOLO PAGANINI,Original 1.0 LinkTEXT,The Romantic Orchestra|66826,44178|Romantic (1803-1912)|THE ROMANTIC TEXT,the Industrial Revolution|68720,45837|Romantic (1803-1912)|THE INDUSTRIAL TEXT,Crystal Palace|20610,57896|Romantic (1803-1912)|CRYSTAL PALACE,Original 1.0 LinkTEXT,Eugene Delacroix|20796,49378|Romantic (1803-1912)|EUGENE DELACROIX,Original 1.0 LinkTEXT,Richard Upjohn|21344,75257|Romantic (1803-1912)|RICHARD UPJOHN,Original 1.0 LinkTEXT,Frederic Chopin|21783,56264|Romantic (1803-1912)|FREDERIC CHOPIN,Original 1.0 LinkTEXT,Giuseppe Verdi|71032,94918|Romantic (1803-1912)|GIUSEPPE VERDI,Original 1.0 LinkTEXT,Frederic Chopin|71403,56264|Romantic (1803-1912)|FREDERIC CHOPIN,Original 1.0 LinkTEXT,the Bible|77030,7039|Biblical History|THE BIBLE,Original 1.0 LinkTEXT,VICTORIA|25639,87425|Romantic (1803-1912)|VICTORIA,Original 1.0 LinkTEXT,Harriet Beecher Stowe|28405,77766|Romantic (1803-1912)|HARRIET BEECHER STOWE,Original TEXT,Count Leo Tolstoy|28640,64033|Romantic (1803-1912)|COUNT LEO TOLSTOY,Original 1.0 LinkTEXT,James Ives|30141,87132|Romantic (1803-1912)|JAMES IVES,Original 1.0 LinkTEXT,Franz Liszt|30731,94003|Romantic (1803-1912)|FRANZ LISZT,Original 1.0 LinkTEXT,Edvard Grieg|31954,98252|Romantic (1803-1912)|EDVARD GRIEG,Original 1.0 LinkTEXT,Impressionism|85042,46534|Romantic (1803-1912)|IMPRESSIONISM,Original 1.0 LinkTEXT,Music|88058,53579|Middle Ages (400-1400)|MUSIC,Original 1.0 LinkTEXT,Stephane Mallarme|106894,89868|Romantic (1803-1912)|STEPHANE MALLARME,Original 1.0 TEXT,Victoria|33663,87425|Romantic (1803-1912)|VICTORIA,Original 1.0 LinkTEXT,Twilight of the Monarchs|34187,46158|Romantic (1803-1912)|TWILIGHT OF THE TEXT,Stephane Mallarme|35766,89868|Romantic (1803-1912)|STEPHANE MALLARME,Original 1.0 TEXT,Maurice Maeterlinck|36961,89868|Romantic (1803-1912)|MAURICE MAETERLINCK,Original 1.0 TEXT,Auguste Rodin|37402,49976|Romantic (1803-1912)|AUGUSTE RODIN,Original 1.0 LinkTEXT,Bertram Goodhue|38027,75488|Romantic (1803-1912)|BERTRAM GOODHUE,Original 1.0 LinkTEXT,Sir Edward Elgar|38538,100129|Romantic (1803-1912)|SIR EDWARD ELGAR,Original 1.0 LinkTEXT,Charles Ives|39598,102834|Romantic (1803-1912)|CHARLES IVES,Original 1.0 LinkTEXT,Jean Sibelius|86087,100800|Romantic (1803-1912)|JEAN SIBELIUS,Original 1.0 LinkTEXT,Herzen|48044,151128|Romantic (1803-1912)|Alexander Herzen (1812-1870),Original 2.0 LinkTEXT,Nicholas of Cusa|83191,83191|Renaissance (1400-1600)|Nicholas of Cusa,Original 2.0 LinkText, Petrus Ramus|30127,85490|Renaissance (1400-1600)|Petrus RamusText, Erasmus|44857,86068|Renaissance (1400-1600)|ErasmusText,The German Reformation|73012,39521|Renaissance (1400-1600)|The German Reformation,No Text,Thomas Munzer|30263,77044|Renaissance (1400-1600)|Thomas Munzer,No Link Notes Entered…TEXT,Erasmus|102681,86068|Renaissance (1400-1600)|Erasmus (Desiderius Erasmus),Original 2.0 TEXT,Erasmus|95221,86068|Renaissance (1400-1600)|Erasmus (Desiderius Erasmus),Original 2.0 TEXT,Erasmus|9669,86068|Renaissance (1400-1600)|Erasmus (Desiderius Erasmus),Original 2.0 LinkTEXT,Erasmus|85168,86068|Renaissance (1400-1600)|Erasmus (Desiderius Erasmus),Original 2.0 TEXT,Erasmus|86068,86068|Renaissance (1400-1600)|Erasmus (Desiderius Erasmus),Original 2.0 TEXT,Erasmus|86407,86068|Renaissance (1400-1600)|Erasmus (Desiderius Erasmus),Original 2.0 TEXT,Erasmus|86567,86068|Renaissance (1400-1600)|Erasmus (Desiderius Erasmus),Original 2.0 TEXT,Erasmus|86895,86068|Renaissance (1400-1600)|Erasmus (Desiderius Erasmus),Original 2.0 TEXT,Erasmus|44857,86068|Renaissance (1400-1600)|Erasmus (Desiderius Erasmus),Original 2.0 TEXT,Erasmus|24815,86068|Renaissance (1400-1600)|Erasmus (Desiderius Erasmus),Original 2.0 TEXT,Erasmus|45974,86068|Renaissance (1400-1600)|Erasmus (Desiderius Erasmus),Original 2.0 TEXT,Erasmus|27014,86068|Renaissance (1400-1600)|Erasmus (Desiderius Erasmus),Original 2.0 TEXT,Erasmus|30263,86068|Renaissance (1400-1600)|Erasmus (Desiderius Erasmus),Original 2.0 TEXT,Machiavelli|85168,87174|Renaissance (1400-1600)|Niccolo Machiavelli,Original 2.0 LinkTEXT,King James Version|68767,80147|Renaissance (1400-1600)|King James Version,Original 2.0 TEXT,King James Version|49625,80147|Renaissance (1400-1600)|King James Version,Original 2.0 TEXT,King James version|26546,80147|Renaissance (1400-1600)|King James Version,Original 2.0 TEXT,Harvard College|81002,81002|Renaissance (1400-1600)|Harvard College,Original 2.0 LinkTEXT,St. Thomas Aquinas|84640,121243|Middle Ages (400-1400)|St. Thomas Aquinas,Original 2.0 TEXT,St. Thomas Aquinas|84911,121243|Middle Ages (400-1400)|St. Thomas Aquinas,Original 2.0 TEXT,Maimonides|9669,122783|Middle Ages (400-1400)|Maimonides (Moses ben Maimon),Original 2.0 TEXT,Desiderius Erasmus|86068,86068|Renaissance (1400-1600)|Erasmus (Desiderius TEXT,John Scotus Erigena|9669,116079|Middle Ages (400-1400)|John Scotus Erigena,Original 2.0 TEXT,al-Farabi|9669,129558|Middle Ages (400-1400)|al-Farabi (Abu Nasr Alfarabi),Original 2.0 LinkTEXT,St. Jerome|101840,3844|Middle Ages (400-1400)|St. Jerome (Eusebius Hieronymus),Original TEXT,St. Jerome|50694,3844|Middle Ages (400-1400)|St. Jerome (Eusebius Hieronymus),Original 2.0 TEXT,St. Augustine|105475,29298|Middle Ages (400-1400)|St. Augustine of Hippo,Original 2.0 LinkTEXT,Rogier van der Weyden|89069,88608|Renaissance (1400-1600)|Rogier van der Weyden,Original TEXT,Rogier van der Weyden|94922,88608|Renaissance (1400-1600)|Rogier van der Weyden,Original TEXT,Rogier van der Weyden|97266,88608|Renaissance (1400-1600)|Rogier van der Weyden,Original TEXT,Rogier van der Weyden|10847,88608|Renaissance (1400-1600)|Rogier van der Weyden,Original TEXT,Masaccio|56643,89871|Renaissance (1400-1600)|Masaccio (Tomaso di ser Giovanni),Original TEXT,Masaccio|89871,89871|Renaissance (1400-1600)|Masaccio (Tomaso di ser Giovanni),Original TEXT,Masaccio|91921,89871|Renaissance (1400-1600)|Masaccio (Tomaso di ser Giovanni),Original TEXT,Masaccio|91921,89871|Renaissance (1400-1600)|Masaccio (Tomaso di ser Giovanni),Original TEXT,Masaccio|92890,89871|Renaissance (1400-1600)|Masaccio (Tomaso di ser Giovanni),Original TEXT,Masaccio|93053,89871|Renaissance (1400-1600)|Masaccio (Tomaso di ser Giovanni),Original TEXT,Masaccio|94210,89871|Renaissance (1400-1600)|Masaccio (Tomaso di ser Giovanni),Original TEXT,Donatello|57590,90325|Renaissance (1400-1600)|Donatello (Donato di Betto Bardi),Original 2.0 TEXT,Donatello|89871,90325|Renaissance (1400-1600)|Donatello (Donato di Betto Bardi),Original 2.0 TEXT,Donatello|90325,90325|Renaissance (1400-1600)|Donatello (Donato di Betto Bardi),Original 2.0 TEXT,Donatello|90525,90325|Renaissance (1400-1600)|Donatello (Donato di Betto Bardi),Original 2.0 TEXT,Donatello|90809,90325|Renaissance (1400-1600)|Donatello (Donato di Betto Bardi),Original 2.0 TEXT,Donatello|91075,90325|Renaissance (1400-1600)|Donatello (Donato di Betto Bardi),Original 2.0 TEXT,Donatello|92192,90325|Renaissance (1400-1600)|Donatello (Donato di Betto Bardi),Original 2.0 TEXT,Donatello|92890,90325|Renaissance (1400-1600)|Donatello (Donato di Betto Bardi),Original 2.0 TEXT,Donatello|93492,90325|Renaissance (1400-1600)|Donatello (Donato di Betto Bardi),Original 2.0 TEXT,Donatello|116419,90325|Renaissance (1400-1600)|Donatello (Donato di Betto Bardi),Original TEXT,Donatello|116419,90325|Renaissance (1400-1600)|Donatello (Donato di Betto Bardi),Original TEXT,Donatello|11617,90325|Renaissance (1400-1600)|Donatello (Donato di Betto Bardi),Original 2.0 TEXT,Brunelleschi|57684,91075|Renaissance (1400-1600)|Filippo Brunelleschi,Original 2.0 LinkTEXT,Filippo Brunelleschi|91075,91075|Renaissance (1400-1600)|Filippo Brunelleschi,Original 2.0 TEXT,Filippo Brunelleschi|11617,91075|Renaissance (1400-1600)|Filippo Brunelleschi,Original 2.0 TEXT,Fra Angelico|56949,91801|Renaissance (1400-1600)|Fra Angelico,Original 2.0 LinkTEXT, Fabriano|93053,93053|Renaissance (1400-1600)|Gentile da FabrianoTEXT, Fabriano|93492,93053|Renaissance (1400-1600)|Gentile da FabrianoTEXT, Fabriano|92488,93053|Renaissance (1400-1600)|Gentile da FabrianoTEXT, Fabriano|98047,93053|Renaissance (1400-1600)|Gentile da FabrianoTEXT,Hieronymous Bosch|22540,99944|Renaissance (1400-1600)|Hieronymous Bosch,Original 2.0 TEXT,Durer|57317,101172|Renaissance (1400-1600)|Albrecht Durer,Original 2.0 LinkTEXT,Michelangelo|105220,116057|Renaissance (1400-1600)|Michelangelo Buonarroti,Original 2.0 TEXT,Michelangelo|106205,116057|Renaissance (1400-1600)|Michelangelo Buonarroti,Original 2.0 TEXT,Michelangelo|106685,116057|Renaissance (1400-1600)|Michelangelo Buonarroti,Original 2.0 TEXT,Michelangelo|108237,116057|Renaissance (1400-1600)|Michelangelo Buonarroti,Original 2.0 TEXT,Michelangelo|64511,116057|Renaissance (1400-1600)|Michelangelo Buonarroti,Original 2.0 LinkTEXT,Michelangelo|116057,116057|Renaissance (1400-1600)|Michelangelo Buonarroti,Original 2.0 TEXT,Michelangelo|116419,116057|Renaissance (1400-1600)|Michelangelo Buonarroti,Original 2.0 TEXT,Michelangelo|116671,116057|Renaissance (1400-1600)|Michelangelo Buonarroti,Original 2.0 TEXT,Michelangelo|117031,116057|Renaissance (1400-1600)|Michelangelo Buonarroti,Original 2.0 TEXT,Michelangelo|117392,116057|Renaissance (1400-1600)|Michelangelo Buonarroti,Original 2.0 TEXT,Michelangelo|117634,116057|Renaissance (1400-1600)|Michelangelo Buonarroti,Original 2.0 TEXT,Michelangelo|117768,116057|Renaissance (1400-1600)|Michelangelo Buonarroti,Original 2.0 TEXT,Michelangelo|118106,116057|Renaissance (1400-1600)|Michelangelo Buonarroti,Original 2.0 TEXT,Michelangelo|120472,116057|Renaissance (1400-1600)|Michelangelo Buonarroti,Original 2.0 TEXT,Michelangelo|120472,116057|Renaissance (1400-1600)|Michelangelo Buonarroti,Original 2.0 TEXT,Michelangelo|124980,116057|Renaissance (1400-1600)|Michelangelo Buonarroti,Original 2.0 TEXT,Michelangelo|124980,116057|Renaissance (1400-1600)|Michelangelo Buonarroti,Original 2.0 TEXT,Michelangelo|125365,116057|Renaissance (1400-1600)|Michelangelo Buonarroti,Original 2.0 TEXT,Michelangelo|126704,116057|Renaissance (1400-1600)|Michelangelo Buonarroti,Original 2.0 TEXT,Michelangelo|127576,116057|Renaissance (1400-1600)|Michelangelo Buonarroti,Original 2.0 TEXT,Michelangelo|127576,116057|Renaissance (1400-1600)|Michelangelo Buonarroti,Original 2.0 TEXT,Michelangelo|128028,116057|Renaissance (1400-1600)|Michelangelo Buonarroti,Original 2.0 TEXT,Michelangelo|128668,116057|Renaissance (1400-1600)|Michelangelo Buonarroti,Original 2.0 TEXT,Michelangelo|129258,116057|Renaissance (1400-1600)|Michelangelo Buonarroti,Original 2.0 TEXT,Michelangelo|20739,116057|Renaissance (1400-1600)|Michelangelo Buonarroti,Original 2.0 LinkTEXT,Parmigiano|119515,119515|Renaissance (1400-1600)|Parmigiano (Francesco Mazzola),Original TEXT,Parmigiano|120472,119515|Renaissance (1400-1600)|Parmigiano (Francesco Mazzola),Original TEXT,Parmigiano|129956,119515|Renaissance (1400-1600)|Parmigiano (Francesco Mazzola),Original TEXT,Titian|106685,123929|Renaissance (1400-1600)|Titian (Tiziano Vecellio),Original 2.0 LinkTEXT,Tintoretto|124841,124841|Renaissance (1400-1600)|Tintoretto (Jacopo Robusti),Original 2.0 TEXT,Tintoretto|124980,124841|Renaissance (1400-1600)|Tintoretto (Jacopo Robusti),Original 2.0 TEXT,Tintoretto|53846,124841|Renaissance (1400-1600)|Tintoretto (Jacopo Robusti),Original 2.0 TEXT,Giotto|89871,102667|Middle Ages (400-1400)|Giotto di Bondone,Original 2.0 LinkText,Posidonius|9300,29919|Rome|Posidonius of Apamea,No Link Notes Entered…Text,Pseudo-Dionysius|9669,82197|Middle Ages (400-1400)|Pseudo-Dionysius,No Link Notes Text,Augustine of Hippo|9669,29298|Middle Ages (400-1400)|St. Augustine of Hippo,No Link Notes TEXT,Ramus|9669,85490|Renaissance (1400-1600)|Petrus Ramus,Original 2.0 LinkTEXT,Catherine de Medici|25609,47011|Renaissance (1400-1600)|Catherine de Medici,Original 2.0 TEXT,Catherine de Medici|31764,47011|Renaissance (1400-1600)|Catherine de Medici,Original 2.0 TEXT,Cosimo de Medici|7039,7039|Renaissance (1400-1600)|Cosimo de Medici,Original 2.0 LinkText, DIONYSIAN|53733,46141|Greece|DionysusText,Matthias Grunewald|22540,102139|Renaissance (1400-1600)|Matthias Grunewald,No Link Notes Text,Martin Schongauer|22540,102964|Renaissance (1400-1600)|Martin Schongauer,No Link Notes Text,Martin Schongauer|101172,102964|Renaissance (1400-1600)|Martin Schongauer,No Link Notes Text,Leonardo da Vinci|131259,103997|Renaissance (1400-1600)|Leonardo da Vinci,No Link Notes Text,Andrea Mantegna|23124,107391|Renaissance (1400-1600)|Andrea Mantegna,No Link Notes Text,Donato Bramante|23124,106685|Renaissance (1400-1600)|Donato Bramante,No Link Notes Text,Giovanni Bellini|23124,107171|Renaissance (1400-1600)|Giovanni Bellini,No Link Notes TEXT,Leonardo|55146,103997|Renaissance (1400-1600)|Leonardo da Vinci,Original 2.0 LinkTEXT,Georgione|64511,106814|Renaissance (1400-1600)|Georgione da Castelfranco,Original 2.0 LinkTEXT,Georgione|123929,106814|Renaissance (1400-1600)|Georgione da Castelfranco,Original 2.0 TEXT,Georgione|23124,106814|Renaissance (1400-1600)|Georgione da Castelfranco,Original 2.0 LinkText,Correggio|129956,118662|Renaissance (1400-1600)|Correggio (Antonio Allegri),No Link Notes Text,Antonio Correggio|28386,118662|Renaissance (1400-1600)|Correggio (Antonio Allegri),No Link Text,Michelangelo Buonarrot|28386,116057|Renaissance (1400-1600)|Michelangelo Buonarroti,No Text,Michelangelo Buonarroti|28386,116057|Renaissance (1400-1600)|Michelangelo Buonarroti,No Text,Jacopo Pontormo|28386,118431|Renaissance (1400-1600)|Jacopo da Pontormo,No Link Notes Text,Francesco Parmigianino|28386,119515|Renaissance (1400-1600)|Parmigiano,No Link Notes Text,Agnolo Bronzino|28386,119553|Renaissance (1400-1600)|Bronzino (Agnolo Torri),No Link Notes Text,Giovanni Savoldo|28386,120113|Renaissance (1400-1600)|Giovanni Savoldo,No Link Notes TEXT,chiaroscuro|104772,104772|Renaissance (1400-1600)|chiaroscuro,Original 2.0 LinkTEXT,Correggio|119515,118662|Renaissance (1400-1600)|Correggio (Antonio Allegri),Original 2.0 TEXT,Correggio|119515,118662|Renaissance (1400-1600)|Correggio (Antonio Allegri),Original 2.0 TEXT,Correggio|129956,118662|Renaissance (1400-1600)|Correggio (Antonio Allegri),Original 2.0 TEXT,Correggio|28386,118662|Renaissance (1400-1600)|Correggio (Antonio Allegri),Original 2.0 Text,Raphael|106685,106205|Renaissance (1400-1600)|Raphael (Raffaello Sanzio),No Link Notes Text,Raphael|108634,106205|Renaissance (1400-1600)|Raphael (Raffaello Sanzio),No Link Notes Text,Raphael|64511,106205|Renaissance (1400-1600)|Raphael (Raffaello Sanzio),No Link Notes Text,Raphael|115048,106205|Renaissance (1400-1600)|Raphael (Raffaello Sanzio),No Link Notes Text,Raphael|116057,106205|Renaissance (1400-1600)|Raphael (Raffaello Sanzio),No Link Notes Text,Raphael|117392,106205|Renaissance (1400-1600)|Raphael (Raffaello Sanzio),No Link Notes Text,Raphael|118106,106205|Renaissance (1400-1600)|Raphael (Raffaello Sanzio),No Link Notes Text,Raphael|118662,106205|Renaissance (1400-1600)|Raphael (Raffaello Sanzio),No Link Notes Text, Raphael|120472,106205|Renaissance (1400-1600)|Raphael (Raffaello Sanzio),No Link Notes Text,Raphael|121147,106205|Renaissance (1400-1600)|Raphael (Raffaello Sanzio),No Link Notes Text,Raphael (Raffaello Sanzio)|23124,106205|Renaissance (1400-1600)|Raphael (Raffaello Text,Raphael|97266,106205|Renaissance (1400-1600)|Raphael (Raffaello Sanzio),No Link Notes Text,Raphael|105220,106205|Renaissance (1400-1600)|Raphael (Raffaello Sanzio),No Link Notes Text, Leon Alberti|56643,93261|Renaissance (1400-1600)|Leon Alberti,No Link Notes Entered…Text, Pieter Bruegel|56949,71611|Renaissance (1400-1600)|Pieter Bruegel the ElderText,Roger van der Weyden|57317,88608|Renaissance (1400-1600)|Rogier van der Weyden,No Link Text,The Limbourg brothers|57317,89354|Renaissance (1400-1600)|The Limbourg Brothers,No Link Text,Donatello|57590,90325|Renaissance (1400-1600)|Donatello,No Link Notes Entered…Text,Praxiteles|57590,39451|Greece|Praxiteles,No Link Notes Entered…Text,St. Peter's|57684,7039|Baroque (1600-1750)|St. Peter's,No Link Notes Entered…Text,Roman or Romanesque arches|57684,7452|Rome|The Triumphal Arch of Constantine,No Link Notes Text,Palladio|57684,127250|Renaissance (1400-1600)|Andrea Palladio,No Link Notes Entered…Text,Henry VII Chapel|22017,98908|Renaissance (1400-1600)|Henry VII Chapel,No Link Notes Text,Henry VII Chapel|58049,98908|Renaissance (1400-1600)|Henry VII Chapel,No Link Notes Text,St. George's Chapel|58049,99162|Renaissance (1400-1600)|St. George's Chapel,No Link Notes Text,St. George's Chapel|22017,99162|Renaissance (1400-1600)|St. George's Chapel,No Link Notes Text,Fontainebleu|66323,70403|Renaissance (1400-1600)|Fontainebleau,No Link Notes Entered…Text,Master of Flemalle (Robert Campin)|10847,89180|Renaissance (1400-1600)|Master of Flemalle Text,Konrad Witz|11505,89871|Renaissance (1400-1600)|Konrad Witz,No Link Notes Entered…Text,Gentile da Fabriano|11617,93053|Renaissance (1400-1600)|Gentile da Fabriano,No Link Notes Text,Domenico Venezianno|11617,93053|Renaissance (1400-1600)|Domenico Venezianno,No Link Notes Text,Nanni di Banco|11617,93492|Renaissance (1400-1600)|Nanni di Banco,No Link Notes Entered…Text,Jacopo della Quercia|11617,93743|Renaissance (1400-1600)|Jacopo della Quertia,No Link Notes Text,Jacopo della Quertia|11617,93743|Renaissance (1400-1600)|Jacopo della Quertia,No Link Notes Text,Hans Memling|17110,97266|Renaissance (1400-1600)|Hans Memling,No Link Notes Entered…Text,Petrus Christus|17110,98047|Renaissance (1400-1600)|Petrus Christus,No Link Notes Entered…Text,The Master of Mary of Burgundy|17110,98100|Renaissance (1400-1600)|The Master of Mary of Text,Piero della Francesca|107839,94210|Renaissance (1400-1600)|Piero della Francesca,No Link Text,Domenico del Ghirlandaio|17917,94922|Renaissance (1400-1600)|Domenico del Ghirlandaio,No Text,Paolo Uccello|17917,95517|Renaissance (1400-1600)|Paolo Uccello,No Link Notes Entered…Text,Antonio Pallaiuolo|116419,96184|Renaissance (1400-1600)|Antonio Pallaiuolo,No Link Notes Text,Piero Pallaiuolo|17917,96453|Renaissance (1400-1600)|Piero Pallaiuolo,No Link Notes Entered…Text,Bernardo Rossellino|5947,96545|Renaissance (1400-1600)|Bernardo Rossellino,No Link Notes Text,Michelozzi Michelozzo|17917,96545|Renaissance (1400-1600)|Michelozzi Michelozzo,No Link Text,Benozzo Gozzoli|17917,96902|Renaissance (1400-1600)|Benozzo Gozzoli,No Link Notes Entered…Text,Luciano da Laurana|17917,92488|Renaissance (1400-1600)|Luciano da Laurana,No Link Notes Text,Sutton Place|22017,99755|Renaissance (1400-1600)|Sutton Place,No Link Notes Entered…Text, Battle of Orleans|8942,73636|Middle Ages (400-1400)|Battle of Orleans,No Link Notes Entered…Text,Michael Colombe|22462,99944|Renaissance (1400-1600)|Michael Colombe,No Link Notes Text,Chateau de Gaillon|22462,66323|Renaissance (1400-1600)|Chateau de Gaillon,No Link Notes Text,Lucas van Leyden|22540,100394|Renaissance (1400-1600)|Lucas Van Leyden,No Link Notes Text,Quentin Massys|22540,100798|Renaissance (1400-1600)|Quentin Massys,No Link Notes Text,Joachim Patenier|22540,101100|Renaissance (1400-1600)|Joachim Patenier,No Link Notes Text,Hans Holbein|22540,102681|Renaissance (1400-1600)|Hans Holbein| the Elder,No Link Notes Text,Viet Stoss|22540,103240|Renaissance (1400-1600)|Viet Stoss,No Link Notes Entered…Text,Michael Pacher|22540,103720|Renaissance (1400-1600)|Michael Pacher,No Link Notes Entered…Text,Bernardino di Pinturicchio|23124,108634|Renaissance (1400-1600)|Bernardino di Text,Piero di Cosimo|118106,5947|Renaissance (1400-1600)|Piero di Cosimo,No Link Notes Entered…Text,Niccolo dell'Arca|23124,64739|Renaissance (1400-1600)|Niccolo dell'Arca,No Link Notes Text,Giuliano da Sangallo|23124,64739|Renaissance (1400-1600)|Giuliano da Sangallo,No Link Notes Text,Antonio da Sangallo|48788,65687|Renaissance (1400-1600)|Antonio da Sangallo,No Link Notes Text,Andrea Sansovino|48788,65687|Renaissance (1400-1600)|Andrea Sansovino,No Link Notes Text,Little Moreton Hall|27534,58049|Renaissance (1400-1600)| Little Moreton Hall,No Link Notes Text,Fontainebleau|27899,70403|Renaissance (1400-1600)|Fontainebleau,No Link Notes Entered…Text,Jean Clouet|27899,71325|Renaissance (1400-1600)|Jean Clouet,No Link Notes Entered…Text,Jan van Scorel|28015,84332|Renaissance (1400-1600)|Jan van Scorel,No Link Notes Entered…Text,Frans Floris|28015,91638|Renaissance (1400-1600)|Frans Floris,No Link Notes Entered…Text,Albrecht Altdorfer|28015,115048|Renaissance (1400-1600)|Albrecht Altdorfer,No Link Notes Text,Hans Baldung Grien|28015,115690|Renaissance (1400-1600)|Hans Baldung Grien,No Link Notes Text,Hans Holbein the Younger|28015,95221|Renaissance (1400-1600)|Hans Holbein| the Younger,No Text,Hans Holbein|68767,95221|Renaissance (1400-1600)|Hans Holbein| the Younger,No Link Notes Text,Alonso Berruguarte|28015,115780|Renaissance (1400-1600)|Alonso Berruguarte,No Link Notes Text,Francesco de'Rossi Salviati|28386,120472|Renaissance (1400-1600)|Francesco de'Rossi Text,Daniele da Volterra|28386,121038|Renaissance (1400-1600)|Daniele da Volterra,No Link Notes Text,Vasari|129258,49378|Renaissance (1400-1600)|Giorgio Vasari,No Link Notes Entered…Text,Jacopo Sansovino|129450,121147|Renaissance (1400-1600)|Jacopo Sansovino,No Link Notes Text,Michele Sanmicheli|49378,122318|Renaissance (1400-1600)|Michele Sanmicheli,No Link Notes Text,Nicholas Hilliard|51977,122874|Renaissance (1400-1600)|Nicholas Hilliard,No Link Notes Text,Nicholas Hilliard|34318,122874|Renaissance (1400-1600)|Nicholas Hilliard,No Link Notes Text,El Greco|35103,124980|Renaissance (1400-1600)|El Greco,No Link Notes Entered…Text,Paolo Veronese|35103,126286|Renaissance (1400-1600)|Paolo Veronese,No Link Notes Entered…Text,Benvenuto Cellini|33923,127005|Renaissance (1400-1600)|Benvenuto Cellini,No Link Notes Text,Andrea Palladio|35103,127250|Renaissance (1400-1600)|Andrea Palladio,No Link Notes Text,Giacomo della Porta|35103,128028|Renaissance (1400-1600)|Giacomo della Porta,No Link Notes Text,Giacomo della Porta|118106,128028|Renaissance (1400-1600)|Giacomo della Porta,No Link Text,Giambologna|35103,128668|Renaissance (1400-1600)|Giambologna,No Link Notes Entered…Text,Bernardo Buontalenti|35103,129258|Renaissance (1400-1600)|Bernardo Buontalenti,No Link Text,Bartolommeo Ammannati|35103,129450|Renaissance (1400-1600)|Bartolommeo Ammannati,No Text,Jan Bruegel|41150,129722|Renaissance (1400-1600)|Jan Bruegel,No Link Notes Entered…Text,the Limbourgs|89760,89354|Renaissance (1400-1600)|The Limbourg Brothers,No Link Notes Text,Parmigiano|28386,119515|Renaissance (1400-1600)|Parmigiano,No Link Notes Entered…TEXT,Francesco Primaticcio|70403,122565|Renaissance (1400-1600)|Francesco Primaticcio,Original TEXT,Francesco Primaticcio|122565,122565|Renaissance (1400-1600)|Francesco TEXT,Francesco Primaticcio|49378,122565|Renaissance (1400-1600)|Francesco Primaticcio,Original TEXT,Bible|73349,7039|Biblical History|The Bible,Original 2.0 LinkTEXT,Jacopo Tintoretto|35103,124841|Renaissance (1400-1600)|Tintoretto (Jacopo Robusti),Original TEXT,Philip the Bold|89354,42689|Renaissance (1400-1600)|Philip the Bold,Original 2.0 LinkText,The Lutheran Reformation|142774,73012|Renaissance (1400-1600)|THE LUTHERAN Text,The Radical or Left-Wing Reformation|142774,77044|Renaissance (1400-1600)|THE RADICAL OR TEXT,William the Conqueror|68889,47118|Middle Ages (400-1400)|William The Conqueror,Original Text,Black Death|136930,49406|Middle Ages (400-1400)|Black Death,itText,1453|97266,15668|Renaissance (1400-1600)|Byzantine Empire endsText, The Reformation|142774,72218|Renaissance (1400-1600)|THE REFORMATIONText, The Scottish Reformation|142774Text, Archbishop Cranmer|79415,45570|Renaissance (1400-1600)|Thomas CranmerText,100 Years War|3790,49409|Middle Ages (400-1400)|The 100 Years WarText, Heinrich Isaac|23727,61633|Renaissance (1400-1600)|HEINRICH ISAACText, Arnolt Schlick|23727,289168|20th Century (1912-1991)|Moritz SchlickText, Pope Alexander VI|21990,14797|Renaissance (1400-1600)|Alexander VI</text>
<text>TEXT,Alexander Pushkin|61724,61724|Romantic (1803-1912)|More…TEXT,Age of the Virtuoso|67306,43554|Romantic (1803-1912)|AGE OF THE VIRTUOSOTEXT,Augustus Welby Pugin|20610,74584|Romantic (1803-1912)|AUGUSTUS WELBY PUGINTEXT,Antonin Dvorak|71950,97627|Romantic (1803-1912)|ANTONIN DVORAKTEXT,Abraham Lincoln|26658,78521|Romantic (1803-1912)|ABRAHAM LINCOLNTEXT,Anthony Trollope|27220,63877|Romantic (1803-1912)|ANTHONY TROLLOPETEXT,Antonin Dvorak|31954,97627|Romantic (1803-1912)|ANTONIN DVORAKTEXT,Art|88058,53323|Middle Ages (400-1400)|ARTTEXT,Antonio Gaudi y Cornet|38352,57896|Romantic (1803-1912)|ANTONIO GAUDI Y CORNETText,Ayer|48044,282670|20th Century (1912-1991)|Sir A.J. (Alfred Jules) AyerTEXT,Anabaptists|77044,77044|Renaissance (1400-1600)|AnabaptistsTEXT,Anabaptists|77541,77044|Renaissance (1400-1600)|AnabaptistsTEXT,Anabaptists|77767,77044|Renaissance (1400-1600)|AnabaptistsTEXT,Anabaptists|30263,77044|Renaissance (1400-1600)|AnabaptistsTEXT,Amish|77767,77767|Renaissance (1400-1600)|AmishTEXT,Albertus Magnus|9669TEXT,Averroes|9669TEXT,Avicenna|9669,134211|Middle Ages (400-1400)|Avicenna (Abu Ali al-Husayn ibn Sina)TEXT,Aristotle|9300,26476|Greece|AristotleTEXT,Aristotle|85490,26476|Greece|AristotleTEXT,Aristotle|85490,26476|Greece|AristotleTEXT,Aristotle|85964,26476|Greece|AristotleTEXT,Aristotle|133134,26476|Greece|AristotleTEXT,Albinus|9300,31955|Rome|Albinus (Decimus Clodius Septimus Albinus)TEXT,Albinus|9669,31955|Rome|Albinus (Decimus Clodius Septimus Albinus)TEXT,Alberti|56643,93261|Renaissance (1400-1600)|Leon AlbertiTEXT,Alberti|89871,93261|Renaissance (1400-1600)|Leon AlbertiTEXT,Alberti|93261,93261|Renaissance (1400-1600)|Leon AlbertiTEXT,Alberti|94210,93261|Renaissance (1400-1600)|Leon AlbertiTEXT,Alberti|96545,93261|Renaissance (1400-1600)|Leon AlbertiTEXT,Alberti|11617,93261|Renaissance (1400-1600)|Leon AlbertiTEXT,Alberti|47486,93261|Renaissance (1400-1600)|Leon AlbertiTEXT,Andrea Verrocchio|95368,95368|Renaissance (1400-1600)|Andrea VerrocchioTEXT,Andrea Verrocchio|17917,95368|Renaissance (1400-1600)|Andrea VerrocchioTEXT,Albrecht Durer|101172,101172|Renaissance (1400-1600)|Albrecht DurerTEXT,Albrecht Durer|107839,101172|Renaissance (1400-1600)|Albrecht DurerTEXT,Albrecht Durer|22540,101172|Renaissance (1400-1600)|Albrecht DurerTEXT,Andrea del Sarto|118106,118106|Renaissance (1400-1600)|Andrea del SartoTEXT,Andrea del Sarto|118431,118106|Renaissance (1400-1600)|Andrea del SartoTEXT,Andrea del Sarto|120472,118106|Renaissance (1400-1600)|Andrea del SartoTEXT,Andrea del Sarto|120702,118106|Renaissance (1400-1600)|Andrea del SartoTEXT,Andrea del Sarto|28386,118106|Renaissance (1400-1600)|Andrea del SartoTEXT,Alexander the Great|115690,46964|Greece|ALEXANDER THE GREATTEXT,Alexander the Great|122565,46964|Greece|ALEXANDER THE GREATTEXT,Alexander the Great|115690,46964|Greece|ALEXANDER THE GREATTEXT,Alexander the Great|122565,46964|Greece|ALEXANDER THE GREATTEXT,Anselm|9669,131984|Middle Ages (400-1400)|St. Anselm of CanterburyTEXT,Apollonian|57317,45379|Greece|ApolloTEXT,Apollonian|53377,45379|Greece|ApolloTEXT,APOLLONIAN|53733,45379|Greece|ApolloText,Andrea del Castagno|11617,92890|Renaissance (1400-1600)|Andrea del CastagnoText,Antonio Pallaiuolo|17917,96184|Renaissance (1400-1600)|Antonio PallaiuoloText,Antonio Rossellino|23124,5947|Renaissance (1400-1600)|Antonio RossellinoText,anthems|61939,58638|Renaissance (1400-1600)| AnthemText,anthems|63532,58638|Renaissance (1400-1600)| AnthemText,Adam and Eve|88335,3631|Biblical History|Adam and Eve Text,Adam and Eve|90325,3631|Biblical History|Adam and Eve Text,Adam and Eve|101840,3631|Biblical History|Adam and Eve Text,Antonio|96453,96184|Renaissance (1400-1600)|Antonio PallaiuoloText,alchemy|100204,134123|Renaissance (1400-1600)|AlchemyText,Adoration of the Magi |101451,24502|Biblical History|The Adoration of the MagiText,Andrea del Verrocchio|108337,95368|Renaissance (1400-1600)|Andrea VerrocchioText,Alexander VI|108634,14797|Renaissance (1400-1600)|Alexander VIText,Adrian VI|84332,20739|Renaissance (1400-1600)|Adrian VIText,Apochrypha|50694,34456|Biblical History|ApocryphaText,Apocrypha|50694,34456|Biblical History|The ApocryphaText,Andreas Vesalius|133572,131979|Renaissance (1400-1600)|Andreas VesaliusText,Alexander VI|72535,14797|Renaissance (1400-1600)|Alexander VIText,Aristotle|84640,26476|Greece|AristotleText,Apollo|84911,45379|Greece|ApolloText,Alexander VI|21990,14797|Renaissance (1400-1600)|Alexander VIText,Archbishop Cranmer|35050,45570|Renaissance (1400-1600)|Thomas CranmerText,Adrian Willaert|28951,62134|Renaissance (1400-1600)|ADRIAN WILLAERTText,Andrea Cesalpino|147585,135332|Renaissance (1400-1600)|Andrea CesalpinoText,Andreas Vesalius|146251,131979|Renaissance (1400-1600)|Andreas VesaliusText,Ambroise Pare|146084,131416|Renaissance (1400-1600)|Ambroise PareText,Apollo|53733,45379|Greece|ApolloText,architectural backgrounds|98313,8465|Biblical History|Fouquet| The Fall of Jericho</text>
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<content>
<layer>background</layer>
<id>59</id>
<text>TEXT,John Constable|12659,49458|Romantic (1803-1912)|JOHN CONSTABLETEXT,JOSEPH MALLORD TURNER|89310,49458|Romantic (1803-1912)|More…TEXT,Jean Francois Chalgrin|12968,57364|Romantic (1803-1912)|JEAN FRANCOIS CHALGRINTEXT,Jacques Louis David|12968,31364|Classic (1750-1803)|JACQUES LOUIS DAVIDTEXT,Jean-Auguste Ingres|20796,49378|Romantic (1803-1912)|JEAN-AUGUSTE INGRESTEXT,James Renwick|21344,75257|Romantic (1803-1912)|JAMES RENWICKTEXT,Jean Sibelius|71950,100800|Romantic (1803-1912)|JEAN SIBELIUSTEXT,John Ruskin|27220,74584|Romantic (1803-1912)|JOHN RUSKINTEXT,Jacob Burckhardt|27860,55146|Renaissance (1400-1600)|JACOB BURCKHARDTTEXT,Johannes Brahms|30731,94641|Romantic (1803-1912)|JOHANNES BRAHMSTEXT,Jaspers|48044,285693|20th Century (1912-1991)|Karl JaspersTEXT,Jan Hus|82460,82460|Renaissance (1400-1600)|Jan HusTEXT,Jan Hus|10153,82460|Renaissance (1400-1600)|Jan HusTEXT,Jan Hus|12548,82460|Renaissance (1400-1600)|Jan HusTEXT,John Calvin|74991,75721|Renaissance (1400-1600)|John CalvinTEXT,John Calvin|75721,75721|Renaissance (1400-1600)|John CalvinTEXT,John Calvin|77541,75721|Renaissance (1400-1600)|John CalvinTEXT,John Calvin|78006,75721|Renaissance (1400-1600)|John CalvinTEXT,John Calvin|46186,75721|Renaissance (1400-1600)|John CalvinTEXT,Jesuits|129450,81831|Renaissance (1400-1600)|Society of JesusTEXT,Jesuits|81831,81831|Renaissance (1400-1600)|Society of JesusTEXT,Jesuits|51032,81831|Renaissance (1400-1600)|Society of JesusTEXT,Jesuits|55399,81831|Renaissance (1400-1600)|Society of JesusTEXT,Jesuits|30495,81831|Renaissance (1400-1600)|Society of JesusTEXT,Jesus|125758,13258|Rome|JESUS OF NAZARETHTEXT,Jesus|75124,13258|Rome|JESUS OF NAZARETHTEXT,Jesus|76063,13258|Rome|JESUS OF NAZARETHTEXT,Jesus|81831,13258|Rome|JESUS OF NAZARETHTEXT,Jesus|51032,13258|Rome|JESUS OF NAZARETHTEXT,Jesus|30495,13258|Rome|JESUS OF NAZARETHTEXT,Jesus Christ|76063,13258|Rome|JESUS OF NAZARETHTEXT,Jan van Eyck|56949,87681|Renaissance (1400-1600)|Jan Van EyckTEXT,Jan van Eyck|57317,87681|Renaissance (1400-1600)|Jan Van EyckTEXT,Jan Van Eyck|87681,87681|Renaissance (1400-1600)|Jan Van EyckTEXT,Jan van Eyck|88174,87681|Renaissance (1400-1600)|Jan Van EyckTEXT,Jan van Eyck|10847,87681|Renaissance (1400-1600)|Jan Van EyckTEXT,Justinian|94716,77048|Middle Ages (400-1400)|JustinianTEXT,John Knox|78006,78006|Renaissance (1400-1600)|John KnoxTEXT,John Knox|78240,78006|Renaissance (1400-1600)|John KnoxTEXT,John Knox|46186,78006|Renaissance (1400-1600)|John KnoxTEXT,John Knox|49963,78006|Renaissance (1400-1600)|John KnoxTEXT,John Knox|29754,78006|Renaissance (1400-1600)|John KnoxTEXT,Joan of Arc|42689,49409|Middle Ages (400-1400)|Joan of ArcTEXT,Joan of Arc|6534,49409|Middle Ages (400-1400)|Joan of ArcText,James Paine|127896,61244|Classic (1750-1803)|James PaineText,JESUS OF NAZARETH|89069,13258|Rome|JESUS OF NAZARETHText,Jean Fouquet|17373,98313|Renaissance (1400-1600)|Jean FouquetText,Jean Goujon|27899,71611|Renaissance (1400-1600)|Jean GoujonText,Jean Goujon|123399,71611|Renaissance (1400-1600)|Jean GoujonText,Jacopo Sansovino|49378,121147|Renaissance (1400-1600)|Jacopo SansovinoTEXT,Jacopo Tintoretto|53846,124841|Renaissance (1400-1600)|Tintoretto (Jacopo Robusti)TEXT,John Dunstable|58263,60863|Renaissance (1400-1600)|JOHN DUNSTABLETEXT,JOHN DUNSTABLE|60863,60863|Renaissance (1400-1600)|JOHN DUNSTABLETEXT,John Dunstable|11832,60863|Renaissance (1400-1600)|JOHN DUNSTABLEText,Josquin|61633,61273|Renaissance (1400-1600)|JOSQUIN DES PREZText,Josquin des Prez|62633,61273|Renaissance (1400-1600)|JOSQUIN DES PREZText,Josquin|62633,61273|Renaissance (1400-1600)|JOSQUIN DES PREZText,James I|63532,79882|Renaissance (1400-1600)|James IText,Josquin|63532,61273|Renaissance (1400-1600)|JOSQUIN DES PREZText,James I|63996,79882|Renaissance (1400-1600)|James IText,John the Fearless|89354,6534|Renaissance (1400-1600)|John the FearlessText,Jean Colombe|89760,5251|Middle Ages (400-1400)Text,Julius II|106281,20739|Renaissance (1400-1600)|Julius IIText,Julius II|106685,20739|Renaissance (1400-1600)|Julius IIText,Julius II|65687,20739|Renaissance (1400-1600)|Julius IIText,Julius II|117031,20739|Renaissance (1400-1600)|Julius IIText,Jupiter|118815,45010|Greece|Zeus (= Roman Jupiter)Text,Jacopo da Pontormo|119553,118431|Renaissance (1400-1600)|Jacopo da PontormoText,James I|122874,79882|Renaissance (1400-1600)|James IText,John Dowland|52467,63996|Renaissance (1400-1600)|JOHN DOWLANDText,Johannes Gutenberg|16623,130490|Renaissance (1400-1600)|Johannes GutenbergText,Johannes Gutenberg|56515,130490|Renaissance (1400-1600)|Johannes GutenbergText,James I|134308,79882|Renaissance (1400-1600)|James IText,Johannes Kepler|136022,110123|Baroque (1600-1750)|Johannes KeplerText,James I|79882,79882|Renaissance (1400-1600)|James IText,John Bunyan|81201,18266|Baroque (1600-1750)|John BunyanText,John Wycliffe|82460,82460|Renaissance (1400-1600)Text,Jonathan Edwards|85964,68005|Baroque (1600-1750)|Jonathan EdwardsText,John Wycliffe|10153,82460|Renaissance (1400-1600)|John WycliffeText,John Paul II|20739,95709|20th Century (1912-1991)|John Paul IIText,Josquin des Prez|23727,61273|Renaissance (1400-1600)|JOSQUIN DES PREZText,John Cabot|25005,69716|Renaissance (1400-1600)|John CabotText,Johann Walter|66967,48904|Renaissance (1400-1600)|JOHANN WALTERText,John Dowland|35495,63996|Renaissance (1400-1600)|JOHN DOWLANDText,Jan Pieterszoon Sweelinck|36461Text,John Calvin|143863,75721|Renaissance (1400-1600)|John CalvinText,Johann Gutenberg|145305,145305|Renaissance (1400-1600)Text,Johannes Gutenberg|145305,130490|Renaissance (1400-1600)|Johannes Gutenberg</text>
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<content>
<layer>background</layer>
<id>60</id>
<text>TEXT,King Louis-Philippe|17368,69755|Romantic (1803-1912)|KING LOUIS-PHILIPPETEXT,KAISER WILHELM II|113299,5761|Romantic (1803-1912)|KAISER WILHELM IITEXT,Kingdom of Italy|26602,72940|Romantic (1803-1912)|KINGDOM OF ITALYTEXT,Karl Marx|32310,69180|Romantic (1803-1912)|KARL MARXTEXT,Kaiser Wilhelm II|34187,5761|Romantic (1803-1912)|KAISER WILHELM IITEXT,KAISER FRANZ JOSEPH|34187,4368|Romantic (1803-1912)|KAISER FRANZ JOSEPHTEXT,King Vittorio Emanuele III|34312TEXT,Kierkegaard|48044,160538|Romantic (1803-1912)|Soren KierkegaardTEXT,Kant|14895,57811|Classic (1750-1803)|Immanuel KantTEXT,King James Version|80147,80147|Renaissance (1400-1600)|King James VersionTEXT,Knox|9669,78006|Renaissance (1400-1600)|John KnoxTEXT,Knox|78006,78006|Renaissance (1400-1600)|John KnoxTEXT,Knox|78240,78006|Renaissance (1400-1600)|John KnoxTEXT,Knox|78408,78006|Renaissance (1400-1600)|John KnoxTEXT,Knox|46186,78006|Renaissance (1400-1600)|John KnoxTEXT,Knox|49963,78006|Renaissance (1400-1600)|John KnoxTEXT,Knox|29754,78006|Renaissance (1400-1600)|John KnoxText,King's College Chapel|58049,98313|Renaissance (1400-1600)|King's College ChapelText,Kepler|64844,110123|Baroque (1600-1750)|Johannes Kepler</text>
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<content>
<layer>background</layer>
<id>70</id>
<text>TEXT,Ulysses S. Grant|26658,79310|Romantic (1803-1912)|ULYSSES S. GRANTTEXT,Ulrich Zwingli|74991,74991|Renaissance (1400-1600)|Ul ich ZwingliTEXT,Ulrich Zwingli|46186,74991|Renaissance (1400-1600)|Ulrich ZwingliText,Uccello|47486,95517|Renaissance (1400-1600)|Paolo UccelloText,Ulisse Aldrovandi|146925,133572|Renaissance (1400-1600)|Ulisse AldrovandiText,Ulrich Zwingli|143863,74991|Renaissance (1400-1600)|Ulrich Zwingli</text>
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<content>
<layer>background</layer>
<id>75</id>
<text>TEXT,Zwingli|9669,74991|Renaissance (1400-1600)|Ulrich ZwingliTEXT,Zwingli|74991,74991|Renaissance (1400-1600)|Ulrich ZwingliTEXT,Zwingli|75124,74991|Renaissance (1400-1600)|Ulrich ZwingliTEXT,Zwingli|46186,74991|Renaissance (1400-1600)|Ulrich ZwingliTEXT,Zwingli|46186,74991|Renaissance (1400-1600)|Ulrich ZwingliTEXT,Zeno|9300,20507|Greece|Zeno of EleaTEXT,Zeno of Citium|9300,29577|Greece|Zeno of Citium</text>
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<content>
<layer>background</layer>
<id>66</id>
<text>Text,Queen Anne Boleyn|99162,69267|Renaissance (1400-1600)|Anne BoleynText,Quintilian|55824,46435|Rome|Quintilian</text>
<text><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">NGLISH NAVIGATORS</a></span><span class="style1"> Sir Martin Frobisher c.1535-1594 Sir Francis Drake c.1540-1596 Henry Hudson c.1570-1611 Sir Walter Raleigh 1552-1618 - founded the 1st permanent English settlement in North American on Roanoke Island off the coast of North Carolina in 1584 </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Spanish Armada</a></span><span class="style1"> defeated in 1588 Bell foundry at Whitechapel founded in 1570 (the company that made "Big Ben" and the "Liberty Bell")1st water closets installed at the Queen's Palace in Richmond - 15961st life insurance in EnglandRugby School founded in 1567 (one of the great English "public" - i.e., private schools)</span></text>
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<layer>background</layer>
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<text>R5England/Miscel</text>
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card_147733.xml
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<text><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">iordano Bruno</a></span><span class="style1"> 1548-1600</span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Andrea Cesalpino</a></span><span class="style1"> 1519-1603</span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Realdo Colombo</a></span><span class="style1"> 1516-1559</span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Hieronymus Fabricius ab Aquapendente</a></span><span class="style1"> 1537-1619Julius Caesar Arantius 1530-1589 Italian physician and anatomist. Discovered that there is no anatomical passage between the fetal and maternal (placental) membranes.Prospero Alpini 1553-1616 Italian physician and botanist.</span></text>
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card_147390.xml
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<text><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">heticus</a></span><span class="style1"> (Georg Joachim von Lauchen) 1514-1574</span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Gerardus Mercator</a></span><span class="style1"> 1512-1594Andreas Libavius 1540-1616 German chemist and alchemist. In 1597 published </span><span class="style2">Alchemia,</span><span class="style1"> an early textbook of chemistry giving the preparation of hydrochloric acid and ammonium sulfate.</span></text>
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card_147010.xml
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<text><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">eace of Augsburg</a></span><span class="style1"> - 1555 Lutherans officially recognized the prince's religion, whether Lutheran or Roman Catholic, now became the state religion</span></text>
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card_36771.xml
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<text><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">dict of Nantes</a></span><span class="style1"> 1598 ended the religious civil wars in France (between 1562 and 1598) by giving Protestant Huguenots equal political rights with Roman Catholics; the Edict was revoked in 1685 and French Protestants had to flee for their lives, with more than 300,000 leaving the countryMichael Servetus 1511-1553 -- Spanish-born French theologian and physician who denied the trinity and the divinity of Christ; denounced by the Inquisition and John Calvin; Calvin had him arrested and burned at the stakeHieronymus Bolsec d.1584 -- Reformed theologian who broke with Calvin and returned to the Roman Catholic Church </span></text>
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card_144325.xml
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<text><span class="style1">atthew Parker 1504-1575 -- second Anglican Archbishop of Canterbury; revised the 39 Articles of the Anglican faith in 1562; he ordered an English translation of the Bible, the "Bishop's Bible" (1572), which became the basis for the Authorized Version of the Bible, the King James Version, in 1611Richard Hooker 1554-1600 -- Anglican theologian opposed to Calvinist tendencies and Roman Catholicism; his </span><span class="style2">Laws of Ecclesiastical Polity</span><span class="style1"> (8 vols, 1594-1648 posth.) set the direction of Anglican theologyAndrew Melville 1545-1622</span></text>
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card_36461.xml
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<text><span class="style1">etherlands </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Roland de Lassus</a></span><span class="style1"> 1532-1594 </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Jan Pieterszoon Sweelinck</a></span><span class="style1"> 1562-1621 Philippe de Monte 1521-1603 Giaches de Wert 1535-1596 Jacobus de Kerle 1532-1591Spain Francisco Guerrero 1528-1599 Diego Ortiz c.1525-c.1575</span></text>
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card_36270.xml
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<script>on mouseDownvideoPopUpend mouseDownIvan Vasilievich - Grand Duke of Moscovy (Ivan the Terrible),St. Basil's Cathedral -Moscow- built by Ivan the Terrible,</script>
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<content>
<layer>background</layer>
<id>78</id>
<text>Late Renaissance (1560-1600)</text>
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<content>
<layer>background</layer>
<id>146</id>
<text>Other/History</text>
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<content>
<layer>background</layer>
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<text><span class="style1">USSIAIvan IV the "Terrible" r.1533-1584 </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group"> </a></span><span class="style1"> . . . . . . . . . . . .</span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group"> </a></span><span class="style1"> . . . . . . . . . the 1st to use the title "Tsar of all the Russias"Boris Godunov r.1598-1605</span></text>
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card_32664.xml
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<text><span class="style1">Spain, Netherlands, Portugal, Milan, Naples, Sicily)Philip II r.1556-1598 married Mary of Portugal, mother of Don Carlos Philip tried to force his Catholicism on the Netherlands the Count of Egmont and William, Prince of Orange, led the revolt he also sent the Spanish Armada against Protestant </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Elizabeth I</a></span><span class="style1"> </span></text>
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<text><span class="style1">ome Pius IV r.1559-1565 - an ardent reformer (See Renaissance IV Essay "</span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">The Council of Trent</a></span><span class="style1">") Pius V r.1566-1572 Gregory XIII r.1572-1585 Sixtus V r.1585-1590 Urban VII r.1590 (14 days) Gregory XIV r.1590-1591 Innocent IX r.1591 (2 months)Florence - became the Grand Duchy of Tuscany in 1569Mantua - Gonzaga rule</span></text>
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<text><span class="style1">ERMANY/AUSTRIA or HOLY ROMAN EMPIRE(the Habsburgs ruled mainly German states, Austria, Bohemia)Ferdinand I r.1556-1564 brother of </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Charles V</a></span><span class="style1"> r.1519-1556Maximilian II r.1564-1576Rudolf II r.1576-1612</span></text>
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<text><span class="style1">ouse of Valois the two sons of </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Catherine de Medici</a></span><span class="style1">, Queen Mother of France Charles IX r.1560-1574 St. Bartholomew's Day Massacre of </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Huguenots</a></span><span class="style1"> in 1572 </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group"> </a></span><span class="style1"> . . . . . . . . . . . Henry III r.1574-1589House of Bourbon Henry IV r.1589-1610</span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group"> </a></span><span class="style1"> . . . . . . . . . . . .</span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group"> </a></span><span class="style1"> . . . . . . . . . . . .</span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group"> </a></span><span class="style1"> . married Maria de Medici (1573-1642) in 1600</span></text>
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<text><span class="style1">ouse of Tudor(Lady Jane Grey) [1537-1554] - "9 Days Queen" beheaded by "Bloody" </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Mary I</a></span><span class="style1">"Bloody" MARY I r.1553-1558 Catholic daughter of Catherine of Aragon and </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Henry VIII</a></span><span class="style1"> married Philip II, King of Spain - son of HRE </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Charles V</a></span><span class="style1"></span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">ELIZABETH I</a></span><span class="style1"> r.1558-1603 daughter of Henry VIII and Anne Boleyn "Glorianna" in Spencer's </span><span class="style2">Faerie Queen</span><span class="style1"> of 1590 (See Renaissance IV Essay "</span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">The English Reformation</a></span><span class="style1">") </span></text>
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<text><span class="style1">on Carlo Gesualdo (c.1560-1613), the subject of a brilliant biography by Gray and Heseltine entitled </span><span class="style2">Carlo Gesualdo, Prince of Venosa, Musician and Murderer</span><span class="style1"> is the </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Hieronymus Bosch</a></span><span class="style1"> of music - he is unique! Having had his first wife and her lover (Don Fabrizio de Carafa) murdered, he went on to marry Leonora d'Este, daughter of the Duke of Ferrara. Settling in Naples, he wrote six books of madrigals (pub. 1585), almost all of which are extremely chromatic and dissonant and many of which deal with the subject of death! (Psychobiographers have a field day with him!) William Shakespeare (1564-1616) did not work in Venice (though he did write about a </span><span class="style2">Merchant of Venice</span><span class="style1"> ), but in his late tragedies, </span><span class="style2">Julius Caesar</span><span class="style1"> (1600), </span><span class="style2">Hamlet</span><span class="style1"> (1601), </span><span class="style2">Othello</span><span class="style1"> (1604), </span><span class="style2">King Lear</span><span class="style1"> (1606) and </span><span class="style2">Macbeth</span><span class="style1"> (1606), written for the Globe Theatre which opened in London in 1599, the mannerist or Dionysian penchant for high drama, theatricality, pathos, blood, murder and intrigue can hardly be missed.</span></text>
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<text><span class="style1">laudio Monteverdi (1567-1643) was the great pivotal figure between the Renaissance and the Baroque (like Shakespeare, and like Beethoven between the Classic and Romantic eras). As Maestro della musica to the Duke of Mantua and Maestro di cappella at St. Mark's in Venice, He wrote in both styles, the prima prattica or stile antico (Renaissance style) and the seconda prattica or stile nuova (Baroque style). His greatest Renaissance works are his first 5 books of madrigals, with many madrigals in Book 5 in the newer Baroque style requiring basso continuo accompaniment of harpsichord and cello playing (or realizing) a figured bass part. (The figures or numbers were a shorthand that told the keyboard player what chords to improvise on.) (See </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Baroque General Comments on Music</a></span><span class="style1"> for Monteverdi as a Baroque composer.)</span></text>
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<text><span class="style1"> SONORITY specified instrumentation in ensemble works (for the first time) idiomatic brass writing highly contrasted dynamics and colors highly contrasting sections of tutti (everyone playing or singing) and soli (just the soloists playing or singing) the tutti/soli alternation was to become the basis of the new Baroque instrumental genre, the concerto grosso HARMONY more homophonic or chordal than his more </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">polyphonic</a></span><span class="style1"> contemporaries more strongly tonal -- i.e., major and minor keys in the modern sense MELODY many motives (short melodic ideas) tossed to and fro in an "echo" style -- also typical of later Baroque music</span></text>
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<text>The leading musical mannerist, Giovanni Gabrieli (c.1555-1612), was the director of music at St. Mark's, with its two choir lofts opposite each other. GENRE he invented the concerted polychoral motet -- i.e., a large-scale sacred work for two or more choruses with specified brass and organ accompaniments FORM large-scale, highly articulated and sectional works a high degree of contrast and differentiation of materials the works are unified by an imposed ritornello refrain the idea of a recurrent ritornello or refrain was to become the main structural device of the entire Baroque</text>
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<text><span class="style1">annerism, a proto-Baroque style, flourished in art and music in Venice ("Ocean's nurseling" to Shelley). Here in this most spectacular of cities, with its fabulous Romanesque St. Mark's Cathedral, religious and secular borders were blurred -- the sumptuous religious celebrations were a notable part of the life of the city. The great commercial wealth of Venice financed a spectacular amount of art. Rich merchants often like to show off their wealth and with Titian, Tintoretto, El Greco and G. Gabrieli they got their money's worth.In art, the three great Venetian mannerists were </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Titian (Tiziano Vecelli)</a></span><span class="style1"> (1477-1576), </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Jacopo Tintoretto</a></span><span class="style1"> (1518-1594) and </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">El Greco</a></span><span class="style1"> (1542-1614). If one were to chose only two paintings to illustrate the differences between high Renaissance classicism and late Renaissance mannerism, one could do worse than comparing the </span><span class="style2">Last Supper</span><span class="style1"> paintings of </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Leonardo da Vinci</a></span><span class="style1"> and Jacopo Tintoretto. Leonardo's is a balanced scene with six apostles on each side of the central Christ. Tintoretto gives us a highly dramatic scene, full of turbulence with the Holy Spirit theatrically breaking in. El Greco's utterly personal distentions and elongations of bodies and limbs almost define the mannerist style as do Titian's gloriously dramatic skies.</span></text>
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<text><span class="style1">see </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Proto Period Overview</a></span><span class="style1">)Mannerism, a late Renaissance style, might be defined as the willingness to upset classical, Apollonian stability in favor of dramatic, Dionysian expressiveness. (</span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Apollo</a></span><span class="style1"> was the Greek god of reason and </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Dionysus</a></span><span class="style1"> was the Greek god of excess.) APOLLONIAN TRAITS DIONYSIAN TRAITS unity sharper contrasts homogeneity exaggerated perspective tranquility richer, often unrealistic colors balance energy symmetry motion moderation theatricality order flamboyance</span></text>
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<text><span class="style1">ITERATURE MUSIC</span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">William Shakespeare</a></span><span class="style1"> (1564-1616) </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">William Byrd</a></span><span class="style1"> (1543-1623)Christopher Marlowe (1564-1593) Orlando Gibbons (1583-1623)Sir Philip Sidney (1554-1586) Thomas Tomkins (1572-1656)Edmund Spenser (c.1552-1599) </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Thomas Morley</a></span><span class="style1"> (1557-1602)Ben Jonson (c.1573-1677) Thomas Weelkes (c.1575-1623)William Stevenson (c.1530-1575) John Wilbey (1574-1638) </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">John Dowland</a></span><span class="style1"> (1562-1626) John Bull (c.1562-1628) Anthony Holborne (c.1560-1602)What an age! What a court! WHAT A WOMAN! No period in English literary or musical history compares with this in terms of sheer skill, productivity and genius. Though the Renaissance may have come late to England, it ended with an awesome roar of creativity.</span></text>
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<text><span class="style1">laborate Elizabethan houses were designed and built, many of them by the architect </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Robert Smythson</a></span><span class="style1"> (1536-1614) who was responsible for </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Hardwick Hall</a></span><span class="style1">, </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Longleat</a></span><span class="style1"> and </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Wollaton Hall</a></span><span class="style1">. The miniaturist and goldsmith </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Nicholas Hilliard</a></span><span class="style1"> (c.1549-1619) was the most famous artist in her court. But is was in literature and music that the great names bubble over.</span></text>
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<text><span class="style1">lizabeth I never married but used her eligibility as a powerful diplomatic tool. Apparently she was in love with Robert Dudley, Earl of Leicester and his stepson Robert Devereux, Earl of Essex (whom she had beheaded for treason). William Cecil, Lord Burghley (who built the magnificent </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Burghley House</a></span><span class="style1">) was her first minister and an amazingly good administrator. </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Sir Francis Drake</a></span><span class="style1"> circumnavigated the globe and claimed the California coast in her name and </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Sir Walter Raleigh</a></span><span class="style1"> (of pipe tobacco fame) took possession of lands in America in her name -- "Virginia" is named after the supposedly virgin Queen. She used charm and flattery to control her "faithful commons" and won the hearts and affections of her subjects.</span></text>
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<text><span class="style1"> woman in a man's world, the formidable Elizabeth I (r.1558-1603), daughter of </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Henry VIII</a></span><span class="style1"> and his second wife Anne Boleyn, was enormously shrewd and effective in wielding power. Yet the picture we have of Elizabethan England is one of a flourishing artistry and lots of "ye olde feastes.""Gloriana", as Edmund Spenser called her in his </span><span class="style2">Faerie Queen</span><span class="style1"> (1590), presided over an enormously successful and prosperous period in English history. Catholic </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Philip II</a></span><span class="style1"> of Spain (husband of Elizabeth's half-sister and predecessor "Bloody" </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Mary I</a></span><span class="style1">) sent his fleet to unseat his Protestant sister-in-law. Elizabeth's defeat of the Spanish Armada in 1588 established England as a great naval power, a prowess that was legendary until after the </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">First World War</a></span><span class="style1"> ("Rule Britannia, Britannia Rule the Waves"). Another plot to place her Catholic cousin, Mary, Queen of Scots, on the throne was also firmly ended with the execution of the Scottish Queen.</span></text>
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<text><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">PANISH EXPLORERS</a></span><span class="style1"> Hernan Cortes 1485-1547 Francisco Pizarro c.1470-1541 Hernando de Soto c.1500-1542 Francisco Vasquez de Coronado 1510-1554 Sebastian Cabot c.1476-1557 - born in Englandcoffee in Europe for the 1st timechocolate brought from Mexico to Spain</span></text>
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<text><span class="style1">ostradamus 1503-1536 - French physician and astrologer his </span><span class="style2">Centuries</span><span class="style1"> (1555) are a collection of rhymed prophesies</span></text>
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<text>Thomas, Cardinal Wolsey (c.1475-1530) - founded Cardinal College . . . . . . . . . . (later Christ Church) in Oxford 1525 Turkeys from South America eaten for the 1st time in England1st written account of cricket in 1550</text>
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<text><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">ierre Belon</a></span><span class="style1"> 1517-1564</span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Ambroise Pare</a></span><span class="style1"> 1510-1590Guillaume Rondelet 1507-1566 French physician and naturalist. Referred to by Rabelais as "the Physician our honest Master Rondibilis".</span></text>
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<text><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">iccolo Machiavelli</a></span><span class="style1"> 1469-1727Ignatius Loyola 1491-1556 founded the "Society of Jesus" known as the </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Jesuits</a></span><span class="style1"></span></text>
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<text><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">artin Luther</a></span><span class="style1"> 1483-1546 </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Desiderius Erasmus</a></span><span class="style1"> c.1466-1536 </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Martin Bucer</a></span><span class="style1"> 1491-1551 - moderate Protestant reformer; became influential regious professor of theology at Cambridge in 1549</span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Philipp Melanchthon</a></span><span class="style1"> 1497-1560 - scholar and Lutheran religious reformer; drafted the </span><span class="style2">Augsburg Confession</span><span class="style1"> (1530) which became an authoritative statement of the Lutheran faithAndreas Osiander 1498-1552 -- Lutheran reformer and theologianJuan Luis Vives 1492-1540 - Jewish philosopher and humanist; born in Spain but lived mainly in the Netherlands; </span><span class="style2">De anima et Vita</span><span class="style1"> (1538) is his major work on psychology and the nature of the mindAnabaptist reformers: </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Thomas Munzer</a></span><span class="style1"> (c.1489-1525); Balthasar Hubmaier (1481-1528); Jacob Hutter (d.1526); Menno Simons [the </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Mennonite</a></span><span class="style1"> derivation] (c.1496-1561)</span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Anabaptists</a></span><span class="style1"> settle in Moravia as "Moravian Brothers"</span></text>
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<text><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">ir Thomas More</a></span><span class="style1"> 1478-1535</span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">John Knox</a></span><span class="style1"> 1505-1572 William Tyndale c.1494-1536 -- theologian and translator of much of the </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">bible</a></span><span class="style1"> (1530-1534); his revised New Testament (1536) was the first volume of Holy Scripture printed in EnglandMiles Coverdale 1488-1568 -- Protestant reformer and biblical scholar; in 1535 he published (in Zurich) the first translation of the whole bible into English</span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Thomas Cranmer</a></span><span class="style1"> 1489-1556 -- first Anglican archbishop of Canterbury; compiled the </span><span class="style2">Book of Common Prayer</span><span class="style1"> for </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Edward VI</a></span><span class="style1"> in 1549, famous for its beautiful English and the 39 Articles of the Anglican faith; burned at the stake under "Bloody" Mary ISir Thomas Elyot c.1490-1546 - humanist scholar and diplomat; </span><span class="style2">The Boke Named Governor</span><span class="style1"> (1531) is the earliest English treatise on moral philosophy; he also compiled the first English dictionary in 1538</span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">George Wishart</a></span><span class="style1"> c.1513-15461536-39 dissolution of the monasteries by </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Henry VIII</a></span><span class="style1"></span></text>
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<text><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">ittle Moreton Hall</a></span><span class="style1"> the largest and most famous Tudor "black and white" house</span></text>
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<text><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">esderius Erasmus</a></span><span class="style1"> c.1466-1536 </span><span class="style2">Praise of Folly</span><span class="style1"> 1509 - a satire on ignorance, stupidity, and superstition, dealing wittily with the failings of men of all classes including churchmen</span></text>
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<text><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">homas Cranmer</a></span><span class="style1"> 1489-1556 - </span><span class="style2">Book of Common Prayer</span><span class="style1"> 1549 with </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Shakespeare</a></span><span class="style1"> and the </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">King James version</a></span><span class="style1"> of the </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Bible</a></span><span class="style1"> (1611) the 3 greatest shapers and monuments of the English language - adopted in the Act of Uniformity Nicholas Udall c.1505-1556 - </span><span class="style2">Ralph Roister Doister</span><span class="style1"> c.1553Sir Thomas Wyatt c.1503-1542Earl of Surrey c.1515-1547Roger Ascham 1515-1568</span></text>
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<text><span class="style1"> Marcellus II r.1555 (27 days) </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Palestrina</a></span><span class="style1"> 's </span><span class="style2">Missa Papae Marcelli</span><span class="style1"> (c.1562) was named after him Paul IV r.1555-1559 an ardent reformer Florence - </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Medici</a></span><span class="style1"> rule until 1574Ferrara - d'Este ruleMantua - Gonzaga ruleMilan - after the last Sforza, Milan became a fief of Spain and the HabsburgsVenice - ruled by the doges Naples - ruled by the HabsburgsPapal States - Papal rule</span></text>
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<text><span class="style1"> </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Paul III</a></span><span class="style1"> r.1534-1549 </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Jesuits</a></span><span class="style1"> founded under his papacy </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Michelangelo</a></span><span class="style1"> painted The Last Judgement for him Roman </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Inquisition</a></span><span class="style1"> began </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Council of Trent</a></span><span class="style1"> called (made up the index of forbidden books) 11 bastard children made a cardinal at age 25 - before he was a priest excommunicated </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Henry VIII</a></span><span class="style1"> Julius III r.1550-1555 gave Rome its last taste of Renaissance paganism in morals patronized bullfights, gambled heavily and even made a cardinal out of the page who took care of his pet monkey</span></text>
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<text><span class="style1">ome Leo X (a </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Medici</a></span><span class="style1">) r.1513-1521 son of Lorenzo the Magnificent (1469-1492) "</span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Martin Luther</a></span><span class="style1"> Pope" Adrian VI of Utrecht r.1522-1523 the last non-Italian pope until John Paul II in the 20th century Clement VII r.1523-1534 (Giulio de Medici) practically a prisoner of </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Charles V</a></span><span class="style1"> whose aunt was Catherine of Aragon (wife of </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Henry VIII</a></span><span class="style1">)</span></text>
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<text>Mature Renaissance (1520-1560)</text>
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<text>Ger/Aus/Spain/HRE/History</text>
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<text><span class="style1">ERMANY/AUSTRIA or HOLY ROMAN EMPIRE (incl. Netherlands and Spain)</span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Habsburg</a></span><span class="style1"> line</span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Charles V</a></span><span class="style1"> r.1519-1556 the greatest Habsburg he was also Charles I of Spain the son of Philip the Handsome (Netherlands) and Juana (Portugal and Spain) married Isabella of Portugal as Holy Roman Emperor he ruled the German states, Austria, Bohemia, the Netherlands, Flanders, Burgundy, Spain, Milan, Naples, Sicily, and the various Duchies of Hungary Suleiman the Magnificent r.1520-1566 - the greatest Ottoman Turkish leader attacked the HRE and even won Hungary</span></text>
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<text><span class="style1">ouse of ValoisFrancis I r.1515-1547</span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group"> </a></span><span class="style1"> . . . . . . . . . . . .</span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group"> </a></span><span class="style1"> . . . . . . . . . . . .</span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group"> </a></span><span class="style1"> . . in 1520 met </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Henry VIII</a></span><span class="style1"> on the Field of the Cloth of Gold and failed to get Henry's support against HRE </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Charles V</a></span><span class="style1">Henry II r.1547-1559 married </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Catherine de Medici</a></span><span class="style1"> who ruled as regentFrancis II r.1559-1560 married Mary, Queen of Scotts</span></text>
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<text><span class="style1">udor line</span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Henry VIII</a></span><span class="style1"> r.1509-1547 1509 m. Catherine of Aragon divorced (daughter, Mary I - "Bloody" Mary) 1533 m. Anne Boleyn - beheaded (daughter, </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Elizabeth I</a></span><span class="style1">) 1536 m. Jane Seymour - died (son, </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Edward VI</a></span><span class="style1">) 1540 m. Anne of Cleves - divorced 1540 m. Catherine Howard - beheaded 1543 m. Catherine Parr - survived her husband Cardinal Wolsey, also Chancellor of England </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Sir Thomas More</a></span><span class="style1"> - beheaded - succeeded Wolsey as Chancellor Thomas Cromwell - beheaded - 1st Minister 1534 Act of Supremacy - made Henry VIII "Supreme Head of the Church of England" (See Renaissance IV Essay "</span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">The English Reformation</a></span><span class="style1">")</span></text>
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<text>The Council Of Trent /Historical Essays</text>
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<text><span class="style1">aul's was an iron rule that pursued with the greatest severity everything and everybody that might injure the Roman Catholic Church in the eyes of the world. He dismissed the three married members of the Sistine Chapel Choir, among them none other than </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Giovanni Pierluigi da Palestrina</a></span><span class="style1"> (1525-1594). The public's esteem of Paul IV was such that Rome commemorated his death with four days of joyful riotous celebration, during which the crowd tore down his statue, dragged it through the streets and sank it in the Tiber, burned the buildings of the Inquisition, freed its prisoners and destroyed its documents. Hard-liners beware!(For more on the tug of war between the Catholics and Protestants see the Essay "</span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">The English Reformation</a></span><span class="style1">" and the Baroque I Essay "</span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">The 30 Years War</a></span><span class="style1">.")</span></text>
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<text><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">ichelangelo</a></span><span class="style1"> replied, "Tell His Holiness that this is a small matter, and can easily be set straight. Let him look to setting the world in order; to reform a picture costs no great trouble." As a result, Paul IV commissioned, with Michelangelo's consent, one of the artist's assistants, </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Daniele da Volterra</a></span><span class="style1"> (1509-1566), to paint draperies over the intimate parts of a number of the figures. This won for Daniele the nickname of "Il Braccatone" - the "breeches maker."Pope </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Paul IV</a></span><span class="style1"> was a man of inflexible and puritan principles, a vigorous reformer and one of the chief forces behind the </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Counter Reformation</a></span><span class="style1">. Under his reign the powers and activities of the Inquisition were extended and the first Index of prohibited books was drawn up (1559). (St.) Ignatius Loyola (1491-1556) provided, with his </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Jesuits</a></span><span class="style1"> (Society of </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Jesus</a></span><span class="style1">), the army of missionaries needed to carry out Catholic reform. </span></text>
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<text><span class="style1"> declaring the Latin Vulgate of </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">St. Jerome</a></span><span class="style1"> (c.340-420) to be the definitive translation of the </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Bible</a></span><span class="style1"> accepting the </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Apocrypha</a></span><span class="style1"> as part of the Biblical canon forbidding of clerical marriages penalties against priestly concubinage the doctrine of transubstantiation the definition of dogma the reform of music and art in the ChurchThe effect of the new restrictions on the arts was not a total disaster. However, the council did conclude that nude figures were to be sufficiently covered to "avoid stimulating the sensual imagination." As Michelangelo's original </span><span class="style2">Last Judgment</span><span class="style1"> would easily divert attentions from any sermon, the reformer Pope Paul IV (r.1555-1559) sent an aide to put a flea in his ear. </span></text>
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<text><span class="style1">ope </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Paul III</a></span><span class="style1"> (Alessandro Farnese), although a worldly pope (r.1534-1549) whose greatest concern was for his family, recognized the need for reform in the Church. The force of the German Reformation had to be recognized. On 21 July 1542 Paul III established the dreaded </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Inquisition</a></span><span class="style1"> and on 13 December 1545, after many postponements for political reasons, the nineteenth ecumenical council began their deliberations at Trent, an Imperial (HRE) territory in the Italian Alps.The council met sporadically -- 1545-1547, 1549, 1551-1552, 1562-1563. Among the subjects and problems discussed were: combating the </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Lutheran</a></span><span class="style1"> "heresy" redefinition of purgatory and </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">indulgences</a></span><span class="style1"> the authority of pope, priesthood, Church, Church tradition and scripture the powers of the </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Curia</a></span><span class="style1"> </span></text>
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<text>Elizabeth I (r. 1558-1603), the daughter of Henry VIII and his second wife, Anne Boleyn, restored Protestantism and thwarted every attempt to restore Roman Catholicism, including a plot to place her Catholic cousin, Mary, Queen of Scots, on the throne of England. Elizabeth I had her queenly cousin killed and from that time on the Church of England has been thoroughly Protestant. In fact, the monarch as Head of the Church is required to be a Protestant and, should any members of the Royal family wish to marry a Roman Catholic, they must receive special permission from the monarch.</text>
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<text><span class="style1">dward VI (r.1547-1553), the son of Henry VIII and his third wife, Jane Seymour, was raised as a Protestant and presided over Thomas Cranmer's efforts in establishing the liturgy of the new Church of England.Edward VI was succeeded by his half-sister "Bloody" Mary I (r.1553-1558), the daughter of Henry VIII and his first wife, Catherine of Aragon. Mary restored Roman Catholicism and papal authority in England in 1555 and had over 300 Protestants executed, earning her the title "Bloody." </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">John Knox</a></span><span class="style1"> (1513-1572), the founder of Scottish Presbyterianism, issued "the first blast of the trumpet against the monstrous regiment of women" in 1558. "Bloody" Mary I and her Catholic cousin </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Mary Stuart</a></span><span class="style1"> (r.1561-1587), Queen of Scots constituted that vile regiment so detested by Knox. When Mary I died childless (she was married to Philip II (r.1556-1598) of Spain) the throne passed to her Protestant half-sister, </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Elizabeth I</a></span><span class="style1">.</span></text>
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<text><span class="style1">ranmer's Anglican liturgy, still the basis of all Anglican liturgies around the world, is by common consent the most beautiful liturgy in the English language. "Bloody" </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Mary I</a></span><span class="style1"> (r. 1553-1558), the Roman Catholic daughter of Henry VIII and Catherine of Aragon, stripped Cranmer of his office and had him burned at the stake. (She was a woman who didn't mess around!)Thomas Cromwell (c.1485-1540) helped Henry VIII carry out the political side of the English Reformation. Between 1536 and 1539 Cromwell dissolved the enormously wealthy Roman Catholic monasteries and confiscated their property. He also arranged Henry's fourth marriage to Anne of Cleves and, when the marriage failed, fell from favor and was executed.</span></text>
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<text><span class="style1">n 1531 Henry VIII declared himself "Supreme Head of the English Church" (a position ratified in the Act of Supremacy of 1534) and, after his excommunication by Pope </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Clement VII</a></span><span class="style1"> (r.1523-1534) in 1533, the break with Rome was complete.Thomas Cranmer (1489-1556) was an early admirer of </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Luther</a></span><span class="style1"> and had visited Lutherans in Germany. He became the first Protestant Archbishop of Canterbury in 1533 and, having helped engineer Henry's split with Rome, went on to make the new Church of England (the Anglican Church) a truly Protestant church during the reign of Henry's son, </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Edward VI</a></span><span class="style1"> (r. 1547-1553). Cranmer is best known as the author of the </span><span class="style2">Book of Common Prayer</span><span class="style1"> (1549) which, with the </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">King James Version</a></span><span class="style1"> of the </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Bible</a></span><span class="style1"> (1611) and the plays and poetry of </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Shakespeare</a></span><span class="style1">, did more to shape our language than any other works. </span></text>
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<text><span class="style1">f the German Reformation had theological roots, the English Reformation had marital and political roots. Originally, </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Henry VIII</a></span><span class="style1"> (r. 1509-1547) was staunchly anti-Protestant. He even wrote an anti-Lutheran tract, </span><span class="style2">Assertio septem sacramentorum contra M. Luther</span><span class="style1"> in 1521 and was honored by Pope </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Leo X</a></span><span class="style1"> for his opposition to Protestantism. But when Henry VIII sought a divorce from his first wife, Catherine of Aragon (mother of "Bloody" Mary I), Cardinal Wolsey, his chancellor, failed to secure his monarch an annulment. (Wolsey died on his way to London to be tried for treason.) Henry VIII then turned for support to Thomas Cromwell (chancellor of the exchequer, lord high chamberlain and vicar-general) and Thomas Cranmer, Archbishop of Canterbury. </span></text>
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<text>While Lutheranism achieved its greatest success in Germany, Lutheran churches were also established in Denmark, Sweden and the Baltic lands. The Reformation led to the growth of nationalism and, eventually, to some of the greatest music and theological ideas in western civilization.</text>
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<text><span class="style1">alvin's </span><span class="style2">Institutes of the Christian Religion</span><span class="style1"> (1536) are still required reading in all Presbyterian and Reformed seminaries. (One wag has defined Calvinism as "the awful, horrendous fear that someone, somewhere might be having a good time.") In France over 2000 Calvinist (Huguenots) communities arose between 1555 and 1562. The Edict of Nantes (1598) guaranteed the rights of the Huguenot protestant minority. (Also see essay "</span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">The English Reformation</a></span><span class="style1">.")Aside from hearing and reading the Bible in the tongue of the people, Luther also believed strongly that the congregation should participate in the service. He introduced the idea of the chorale -- a German hymn with an easily sung melody and a text, usually Biblical, in rhymed verse. His most famous chorale was "Ein feste Burg ist unser Gott" ("A Mighty Fortress is Our God.") Luther himself may well have written this celebrated melody.</span></text>
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<text><span class="style1">uther urged temporal rulers to abandon any subservience to the authority of the Roman church. The rulers rather liked this idea and, in 1529, all the Lutheran states and towns in Germany signed a "protestation" against the HRE Emperor Charles V. (This is the origin of the term "Protestant".) By 1535 most of the imperial free cities and many of the princely states had joined the Reformation. Finally, the Peace of Augsburg of 1555 recognized the temporal ruler's right to determine his country's religion.Other protestant leaders following Martin Luther's break with Rome were Martin Bucer (1491-1551) and Philipp Melanchthon (1497-1560) in Germany, </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Ulrich Zwingli</a></span><span class="style1"> (1484-1531) in Zurich, </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">John Calvin</a></span><span class="style1"> (1509-1564) in Geneva and </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">John Knox</a></span><span class="style1"> (1505-1572) in Scotland. (John Knox, who studied with Calvin in Geneva, returned to Scotland and began the Presbyterian Church.) Under John Calvin's theocratic rule, Geneva became the most influential center of the Reformation. </span></text>
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<text><span class="style1">uther took the position that even if the buying of an indulgence were a "good work", it did not matter to God because we are justified not by works but by faith alone. Good works, the power of a priest to mediate between the believer and God and the power of the church to admit one to a sinless state were all irrelevant to Luther. </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Desiderius Erasmus</a></span><span class="style1"> (c.1466-1536), the Dutch humanist, had earlier attacked the church in his </span><span class="style2">Praise of Folly</span><span class="style1"> (1509) but insisted that reform should come from within the church.Needless to say, the Roman Catholic Church did not approve of the Augustinian monk's theology. Pope </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Leo X</a></span><span class="style1"> (a Medici, r.1513-1521) excommunicated Luther in 1521 and, in the same year, the HRE </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Charles V</a></span><span class="style1"> condemned him at the Diet of Worms. (Nothing like a macrobiotic diet, this "diet" was an imperial assembly at the western German town of Worms.)</span></text>
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<text><span class="style1">hen Martin Luther (1483-1546) nailed his 95 Theses to the door of the Castle Church in Wittenberg on 31 October 1517 (now known as "Reformation Day") he initiated a movement that would put an end to the western dominance of the Roman Catholic Church. The religious debate that ensued gave rise to the Protestant or reformed churches and a century and a half of religious strife.While </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">the Lutheran Church</a></span><span class="style1"> rose out of Martin Luther's protestations, that was not his intent. The "Reformation" of the Roman Catholic Church was what he had in mind. The 95 Theses were an attack on the abuses within the Roman Church. Luther, a German Catholic priest, protested papal corruption, the lack of a </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Bible</a></span><span class="style1"> in a language the people could understand (he completed his German translation of the Bible in 1524) and the sale of "indulgences." Used to raise money for the rebuilding of </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">St. Peter's</a></span><span class="style1"> in Rome, an indulgence was the sale of remission of sins and the cancelling of punishments for sin. </span></text>
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<text><span class="style1">ORTUGUESE NAVIGATORS Vasco da Gama c.1469-1524 Ferdinand Magellan c.1480-1521 (See Essay "</span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Navigators and Explorers</a></span><span class="style1">")</span></text>
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<text><span class="style1">TALIAN EXPLORERS Christopher Columbus 1451-1506 Amerigo Vespucci 1451-1512 Giovanni da Verrazzano c.1485-c.1528 (See Essay "</span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Navigators and Explorers</a></span><span class="style1">")</span></text>
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<text><span class="style1">PANISH EXPLORERS Juan Ponce de Leon c.1460-1521 Vasco Nunez de Balboa 1475-1517 (See Essay "</span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Navigators and Explorers</a></span><span class="style1">")</span></text>
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<text><span class="style1">odolphus Agricola (Roelof Huysman) 1444-1485 -- Dutch humanist; </span><span class="style2">De inventione dialectica</span><span class="style1"> (1479)Alexander Hegius c.1433-1498 -- humanist and educator; teacher of </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Erasmus</a></span><span class="style1">Johannes Reuchlin 1455-1522 -- humanist scholar; he produced both Latin and Hebrew lexicons, the latter providing a powerful incentive to the study of the Old Testament in the original</span></text>
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card_19469.xml
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<text><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">aster of Moulins</a></span><span class="style1"> fl.1480-1500</span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Michael Colombe</a></span><span class="style1"> c.1430-c.1512 - sculptor6 "Lady With the Unicorn" tapestries in the Musee de Cluny, Paris</span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Chateau de Gaillon</a></span><span class="style1"></span></text>
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<text><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">iccolo Machiavelli</a></span><span class="style1"> 1469-1527 </span><span class="style2">The Prince</span><span class="style1"> (1513) the hero was Cesare Borgia, brother of Lucrezia and bastard son of </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group"> Pope Alexander VI</a></span><span class="style1"> Machiavelli was the first modern politician no moral Christian views psychology was importantLodovico Ariosto 1474-1533 - </span><span class="style2">Orlando Furioso</span><span class="style1"> (1516)Baldassare Castiglione 1478-1529</span></text>
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<text>Ferdinand and Isabella r.1474-1504 a united Spain - conquered Granada and extinguished the Moorish kingdom used the church to control the nobility - church and state become one Tomas de Torquemada (1420-1498) and the Spanish Inquisition from 1505-1517 regents ruled</text>
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card_20739.xml
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<text><span class="style1">ome Alexander VI (Borgia) r.1492-1503 - one of the most immoral popes two bastard children, Caesare Borgia c.1475-1507 (of </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Machiavelli</a></span><span class="style1"> 's </span><span class="style2">The Prince</span><span class="style1"> ) and Lucrezia Borgia 1480-1539 Pius III r.1503 (served only 26 days) Julius II r.1503-1513 </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Michelangelo</a></span><span class="style1"> built his tomb laid the foundation of </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">St. Peter's</a></span><span class="style1"> in 1506 Leo X (a </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Medici</a></span><span class="style1">) r.1513-1521 son of Lorenzo the Magnificent (1469-1492) "</span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Martin Luther</a></span><span class="style1"> Pope" - Adrian VI of Utrecht r.1522-1523 the last non-Italian pope until the Polish </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">John Paul II</a></span><span class="style1"> in 1978</span></text>
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<text><span class="style1">absburgs</span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Maximilian I</a></span><span class="style1"> r.1493-1519 married Mary of Burgundy (1457-1482) and added </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">the Netherlands</a></span><span class="style1"> (Burgundy & Flanders) to the Holy Roman Empire their daughter, Margaret of Austria (1480-1530), was regent of the Netherlands their son, Philip the Handsome (or Fair) 1478-1506, married Juana of Aragon and Castile (1479-1555) in 1496</span></text>
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<text><span class="style1">ouse of ValoisLouis XII r.1498-1515 married Mary Tudor, sister of </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Henry VIII</a></span><span class="style1"></span></text>
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<text><span class="style1"> Sir Francis Drake (c.1540-1596) - funded by </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Elizabeth I</a></span><span class="style1"> . . . . . . . . . . . . . made three expeditions to the West Indies (1570,1571,1572) sailed on the Golden Hind and claimed the California coast for Elizabeth I (1577) reached the Moluccas, Celebes, Java and Sierra Leone (1579-1580) completed the first circumnavigation of the globe by an Englishman (1577-1580) - Magellan was the first defeated the Spanish Armada in 1588 Henry Hudson (c.1570-1611) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . sailed on the Hopewell and reached Greenland (1607) he had to turn back from his second voyage on his third voyage for the East India Company, sailing on the HalfMoon, he discovered the Hudson River and sailed up it as far as Albany (1609) his fourth voyage (on the Discovery) reached Hudson Bay (1610)</span></text>
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<text> Giovanni da Verrazzano (c.1485-c.1528) explored the coast of North America and discovered New York (mouth of the Hudson) and Narragansett bays (1524)ENGLISH NAVIGATORS John Cabot (c.1450-c.1500) born in Italy - explored the northeast coast of America Sir Martin Frobisher (c.1535-1594) discovered Frobisher Bay in Canada (1576)</text>
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<text>ITALIAN EXPLORERS Christopher Columbus (1451-1506) - funded by Ferdinand and Isabella of Spain . . . . . sailing with a fleet of three vessels (the Nina, Pinta and Santa Maria) he discovered San Salvador in the Bahamas, Cuba and Haiti in 1492 on his second voyage he discovered Jamaica (1494) on his third voyage he discovered Trinidad (1498) and was probably the first to discover the mainland of South America (1498) on his fourth voyage he discovered Honduras (1502) and coasted down to the Isthmus of Panama seeking a westward passage Amerigo Vespucci (1451-1512) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . made several voyages to the New World (in 1497,1499,1501 and 1503) made several maps Martin Waldseemuller, a German geographer, suggested the new lands be named "America"</text>
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<text>PORTUGUESE NAVIGATORS Vasco da Gama (c.1469-1524) - funded by Emanuel I of Portugal . . . . . . . . . . made the first voyage from western Europe around Africa to the east and found India (1498) Ferdinand Magellan (c.1480-1521) - funded by Emanuel I of Portugal and . . . . . . . Charles V of Spain explored India (1505-1510) sailed west through the Strait of Magellan (1520) discovered the Philippines (1521) one of his original five vessels circumnavigated the globe (ending in 1522)</text>
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<text> Francisco Vasquez de Coronado (1510-1554) - funded by Charles V of Spain . . . . . . landed in Mexico (1535) went up the Colorado River and discovered the Grand Canyon (1540) explored California, followed the course of the Rio Grande, crossed the Texas Panhandle and discovered Oklahoma and Kansas (1540-1542) Sebastian Cabot (c.1476-1557) - pilot major to Charles V born in England explored South America (1528-1529) published engraved map of the world (1544)</text>
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<text><span class="style1"> Vasco Nunez de Balboa (1475-1517) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . discovered the Pacific Ocean (1513) Hernan Cortes (1485-1547) - funded by </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Charles V</a></span><span class="style1"> of Spain . . . . . . . . . . . conquered Mexico (1519) and held Montezuma as a hostage travelled to Honduras (1524-1526) discovered Lower (Baja) California (1536) Francisco Pizarro (c.1470-1541) - funded by Charles V of Spain . . . . . . . . . . explored the west coast of South America (1524-1526) conquered Peru (1532) and founded the new capital, Lima (1535) Hernando de Soto (c.1500-1542) - funded by Charles V of Spain . . . . . . . . . . landed in Florida (1539) discovered and crossed the Mississippi (1541) in a search for gold</span></text>
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<text><span class="style1">he focus of the humanists on man and his world (See </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Renaissance Introduction</a></span><span class="style1">) inevitably led to great activity by navigators and explorers seeking to find out just how big man's world really was. They were also (perhaps more to the point) seeking to find out just how much gold and treasure lay beyond the blue horizon. The patronage (and greed) of </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Habsburg</a></span><span class="style1"> HRE Charles V (r.1519-1556) was responsible for most of the discoveries in the New World.SPANISH EXPLORERS Juan Ponce de Leon (c.1460-1521) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . went to America with Columbus on his second voyage (1493) went to Puerto Rico (1508) and became the governor (1510) discovered Florida (1513) in search for Bimini, on which was reputed to be the Fountain of Youth visited the Bahamas (1513)</span></text>
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<text><span class="style1"> Wife No. 4 Anne of Cleves (m. 1540) DIVORCED because of a lack of love - the marriage was a political alliance with the Germans (</span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Thomas Cromwell</a></span><span class="style1">, his first minister, lost his head for arranging this one!) Wife No. 5 Catherine Howard (m. 1540) BEHEADED for numerous extramarital affairs Wife No. 6 Catherine Parr (m. 1543) SURVIVED the ageing king - she was even nice to him!After all is said and done, the great achievement of Henry VIII's reign was the triumph of the unchallenged and all-embracing power of the crown. All rivals, be they peers of the realm or alien bishops were struck down. The crown alone emerged triumphant.</span></text>
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<text><span class="style1">ow to the BAD legacy! - the divorce business... Wife No. 1 Catherine of Aragon (m. 1509) mother of </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Mary I</a></span><span class="style1"> ("Bloody" Mary) DIVORCED because she didn't give him a son to secure the succession --from </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">William the Conqueror</a></span><span class="style1"> through Henry VIII there had never been a Queen Regnant this divorce led to his break with Rome and the establishment of the Church of England (and the death of Sir Thomas More) Wife No. 2 Anne Boleyn (m. 1533), mother of </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Elizabeth I </a></span><span class="style1"> . . . . . . . . . . . . BEHEADED for a supposed affair with her music master Wife No. 3 Jane Seymour (m. 1536), mother of </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Edward VI</a></span><span class="style1"> DIED 13 days after childbirth, having done her duty (she had a son!)</span></text>
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<text><span class="style1"> He wrote the tract </span><span class="style2">Assertio septem sacramentorum contra M. Luther</span><span class="style1"> (1521) - Pope </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Leo X</a></span><span class="style1"> honored him for his opposition to </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Martin Luther</a></span><span class="style1">. For Henry's new Church of England Archbishop </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Thomas Cranmer</a></span><span class="style1"> wrote the incredibly important </span><span class="style2">Book of Common Prayer</span><span class="style1"> (1549). Cranmer's book, along with the works of </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Shakespeare</a></span><span class="style1"> and the </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">King James Version</a></span><span class="style1"> of the </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Bible</a></span><span class="style1"> (1611) are considered the three greatest monuments and shapers of the English language. He built up a tremendous musical instrument collection - 333 instruments were listed on the inventory at Westminster in 1547. He wrote c.32 musical compositions. (</span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Frederick the Great</a></span><span class="style1"> was the only other monarch in his musical league.) Not a bad legacy!</span></text>
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<text><span class="style1">Divorced, beheaded, died, Divorced, beheaded, survived"Generations of British children have memorized this couplet in order to remember what happened to Henry's famous six wives. But there's more to this monarch than his appalling marital record. The son of </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Henry VII</a></span><span class="style1"> (Henry Tudor), Henry VIII (r.1509-1547) was an authentic "Renaissance man" - humanist, author, composer, patron and party-thrower extraordinaire! He became the Supreme Head of the Church of England (a position held by all successive English monarchs) - again owing to the divorce business. He made the brilliant humanist </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Sir Thomas More</a></span><span class="style1"> (author of </span><span class="style2">Utopia</span><span class="style1"> - 1516) his Chancellor (and later took off his head because of the divorce business). He hired </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Hans Holbein</a></span><span class="style1"> to paint for him in the 1530's. He engaged </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Thomas Tallis</a></span><span class="style1"> to write his sacred and keyboard music and </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">William Cornysh</a></span><span class="style1"> to write his secular music.</span></text>
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<text><span class="style1">he Fuggers (a banking family) of Augsburg begin business dealings with </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">the Habsburgs</a></span><span class="style1"> in 1473</span></text>
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<text><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">arsilio Ficino</a></span><span class="style1"> 1433-1499 humanist; became head of Platonic Academy of Florence in 1462</span></text>
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<text><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">agia Sophia</a></span><span class="style1"> and other churches turned into mosques and mosaics are painted over by iconoclastic Moslems</span></text>
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<text><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">ean Fouquet</a></span><span class="style1"> c.1420-1481 - </span><span class="style2">The Hours of Etienne Chevalier</span><span class="style1"> c.1457</span><span class="style2">King Rene's Book of Love</span><span class="style1"> c.1465 King Rene was the father of Margaret of Anjou, wife of </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Henry IV</a></span><span class="style1"> of England</span></text>
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<text><span class="style1">illiam Caxton c.1422-1491 - prints first book in English in 1477Sir Thomas Malory fl.1470's - </span><span class="style2">Morte d'Arthur</span><span class="style1"> 1st great work of English prose, about the legends of King Arthur</span></text>
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<text><span class="style1">USSIA</span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Ivan III</a></span><span class="style1"> "The Great" r.1462-1505 defeated the Mongol empire in 1481</span></text>
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<text><span class="style1">erdinand and Isabella r.1474-1504 united Spain for the 1st time . . . . . . . . . . . Ferdinand of Aragon married Isabella of Castile in 1469 - their daughter, Catherine of Aragon, married </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Henry VIII</a></span><span class="style1"></span></text>
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<text><span class="style1">ome Pius II r.1458-1464 Sixtus IV r.1471-1484 - built the Sistine Chapel Innocent VIII r.1489-1492 Alexander VI r.1492-1503 - one of the worst popes two children, Caesare Borgia (of Machiavelli's </span><span class="style2">The Prince</span><span class="style1"> ) and Lucrezia BorgiaFlorence - </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">the Medici</a></span><span class="style1"> - Lorenzo the Magnificent r.1469-1492 Savaronola in 1494 Ferrara - d'Este familyMantua - Isabella d'Este (1474-1539) and the GonzagasMilan - the Visconti and SforzasVenice - the dogesNaples - ruled by Spain and the Spanish Habsburgs</span></text>
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<text><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">harles the Bold</a></span><span class="style1"> (or Rash) r.1467-1477Mary of Burgundy r.1477-1482 married HRE Maximilian I, a </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Habsburg</a></span><span class="style1">, and </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">the Netherlands</a></span><span class="style1"> joined the Holy Roman Empire </span></text>
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<text><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">ichard III</a></span><span class="style1"> r.1483-1485 Duke of Gloucester, brother of Edward IV and uncle of the murdered princes Wars of the Roses - Yorks (White Rose) vs. Lancasters (Red Rose) Richard III killed on Bosworth Field by </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Henry VII</a></span><span class="style1"> ("My kingdom for a horse!") House of TudorHenry VII r.1485-1509 this Lancaster heir married Elizabeth of York, thus uniting the two feuding houses</span></text>
<text><span class="style1">ouse of YorkEdward IV r.1461-1470 and 1471-1483 imprisoned Henry VI, his cousin, in 1470</span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Henry VI </a></span><span class="style1"> (a Lancaster) was restored to the throne in 1470-1471Edward IV (a York) took back the throne in 1471 and reigned until 1483 (1483 is known as the "year of the three kings")Edward V r.1483 son of Edward IV murdered with his brother Richard by </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Richard III</a></span><span class="style1">, Duke of Gloucester of all the Kings of England only Edward V and </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Edward VIII</a></span><span class="style1"> (the Duke of Windsor) were not crowned at Westminster Abbey</span></text>
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<text><span class="style1">xcommunicated in 1497, Savonarola was imprisoned and tried for sedition and heresy, and on May 23 1498 was tortured, hanged and burned at the stake with two other Dominicans. Lord Acton's dictum about absolute power corrupting absolutely seems to have been written for the occasion. It's too bad </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Oliver Cromwell</a></span><span class="style1"> didn't learn a good lesson from Savonarola.</span></text>
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<text><span class="style1">hough he did not have the fabulous taste of his grandfather, Lorenzo did patronize scholars, artists and musicians like Politian, </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Botticelli</a></span><span class="style1">, </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Verrocchio</a></span><span class="style1"> and </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Isaac</a></span><span class="style1">. Lorenzo was especially fond of collecting ancient sculpture, pottery and Byzantine mosaics. His extravagant entertainments and autocratic style were criticized by the preacher-politician (and party pooper) Girolamo Savonarola (1452-1498).When Lorenzo died the Medici influence waned. His son Pietro (1471-1503) ruled only two years and was driven out of Florence in 1494 by Savonarola and his followers (the Piagnoni or democratic party). The narrow-minded, puritanical </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Dominican</a></span><span class="style1"> friar became the dictator of the republic. After a nasty taste of his demagoguery the Arrabbiati or aristocratic party regained power. </span></text>
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<text><span class="style1">ven though Florence was outwardly a republic, Cosimo de Medici used his power and influence to control most Florentine institutions. His patronage of arts and letters is legendary. Known as the pater patriae (father of his country), he spent generously for works by </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Brunelleschi</a></span><span class="style1">, </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Ghiberti</a></span><span class="style1">, </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">della Robbia</a></span><span class="style1">, </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Alberti</a></span><span class="style1">, </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Fra Angelico</a></span><span class="style1"> and </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Uccello</a></span><span class="style1">. He also welcomed to his palace Greek refugee scholars driven out of Constantinople after its fall to the Turks in 1453.Lorenzo the Magnificent (1444-1492), a chip off the grandfatherly block, ruled Florence with a splendor, ingenuity and totality that would have pleased Cosimo. Though Lorenzo knew very little about the Medici business and actually had some financial problems, his lavish public entertainments made him popular with the average citizen. Lorenzo, a polished prose writer and a more than decent poet, was also smart enough to arrange for his son Giovanni to become a cardinal and then Pope Leo X. </span></text>
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<text><span class="style1">n the lottery of life, to be born a Medici, </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Habsburg</a></span><span class="style1">, </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Tudor</a></span><span class="style1"> or </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Bourbon</a></span><span class="style1"> means to come out a winner. Without these four great families, an enormous amount of fabulous art simply would not exist. Without a doubt, the greatest Italian family was the Medici. The great Tuscan family included four popes (</span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Leo X</a></span><span class="style1">, </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Clement VII</a></span><span class="style1">, </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Pius IV</a></span><span class="style1"> and Leo XI) and two Queens of France, Catherine de Medici who married Henry II and Maria de Medici who married </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Henry IV</a></span><span class="style1">.</span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Cosimo de Medici</a></span><span class="style1"> (1389-1464) inherited a great banking fortune from his father Giovanni (d.1429) and established the family's political power in Florence. (Giovanni de Medici became banker to the Vatican in 1414.) </span></text>
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<text><span class="style1">483 is known as the "year of the three kings." (Only two monarchs since </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">William the Conqueror</a></span><span class="style1"> have not been crowned in Westminster Abbey, the unfortunate Edward V and the equally unfortunate </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Edward VIII</a></span><span class="style1">, the Duke of Windsor - though to be fair, Mrs. Simpson does not compare with Richard III.)Two years after murdering his way to the throne, Richard III was killed by Henry Tudor at Bosworth Field. ("My kingdom for a horse!") Henry Tudor, who then became Henry VII (r.1485-1509) of the House of Tudor, was a descendant of the Lancasters (red rose, remember?) and, in his marriage to Elizabeth of York (white rose) put the old family conflict finally to rest.Henry VII himself finally rests in the magnificent </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">fan-vaulted chapel</a></span><span class="style1"> bearing his name in Westminster Abbey - a chapel which his son </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Henry VIII</a></span><span class="style1"> had built for him.</span></text>
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<text><span class="style1">he Yorks did not only hate the Lancasters, they hated each other and family feuding sent Edward IV into exile. Once more into the breach stepped Henry VI who was restored to the throne briefly (1469-1470). Edward IV was not happy with this arrangement and, returning from exile, reclaimed the throne for himself in 1470. This time he took no chances and had Henry VI executed. With the Yorks now secure, Edward IV began to build St. George's, Windsor, the glorious building in which he and so many other sovereigns (including </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Henry VIII</a></span><span class="style1">) are buried.After Edward IV's death in 1483, his brother Richard of Gloucester (1452-1485) made himself the Protector of Edward IV's son and heir, Edward V (r.1483) and, in his thirst for power, murdered the two princes, young Edward V and his brother Richard, in the Tower and declared himself </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Richard III</a></span><span class="style1"> (r.1483-1485). (A quite nasty uncle!) </span></text>
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<text><span class="style1">enry V's son Henry VI (r.1422-1464, 1469-1470) reigned as King of England and King of France. On the plus side, Henry VI founded Eton and King's College, Cambridge. (The King's College Chapel has the most splendid fan-vaulted ceiling in the world to go along with the finest choir of men and boys in the world!) Politically, however, Henry VI was a disaster. He lost </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">the 100 Years War</a></span><span class="style1"> to the French in 1453 and, at home, this Lancaster red rose (on the household badge) lost the Battle of St. Albans (1455) to the usurper Richard Duke of York. (The Yorks had a white rose on their badge.)After briefly taking over the reigns of government, Richard was defeated and executed by Henry VI in 1460. This did not please the York partisans who proclaimed Richard's son Edward, King Edward IV (r.1461-1469, 1470-1483) and then defeated and imprisoned Henry VI in the dreaded </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Tower of London</a></span><span class="style1"> in 1464.</span></text>
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<text><span class="style1">he sound of "Wars of the Roses" has a romantic ring to it. In fact it was Sir Walter Scott, a true romantic, who coined the term to apply to the same royal feuds about which </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Shakespeare</a></span><span class="style1"> wrote his great cycle of Histories.In 1399 Henry Bolingbroke (1366-1413), a grandson of </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Edward III</a></span><span class="style1"> (r.1327-1377) and son of John of Gaunt, Duke of Lancaster (1340-1399), seized the throne from Plantagenet </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Richard II</a></span><span class="style1"> (r.1377-1399), also a grandson of Edward III, and declared himself Henry IV (r.1399-1413) in the House of Lancaster. Other than the Lancastrian triumph, his major claim to fame was the victory over the Welsh patriot Owen Glendower. Henry IV died in 1413 and is buried under a beautiful effigy in Canterbury Cathedral. Henry IV was succeeded by his son Henry V (r.1413-1422), whose major claim to fame was his victory over the French at Agincourt in </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">the 100 Years War</a></span><span class="style1">. </span></text>
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<id>192</id>
<text>Wars of the Roses.1</text>
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<name>Wars of the Roses.1</name>
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card_38474.xml
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<text><span class="style1">he </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Medici</a></span><span class="style1"> of Florence become bankers to the papacy in 1414 </span></text>
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<id>192</id>
<text>R1Italy/Miscel</text>
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<name>R1Italy/Miscel</name>
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card_13267.xml
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<text><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">an Hus</a></span><span class="style1"> (Czech) 1372-1415 follower of Wycliffe - religious reformer said that Christ was the head of the church, not the pope highly critical of the sale of indulgences and other church abuses insisted that salvation did not belong to Roman Catholics alone</span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Nicholas of Cusa</a></span><span class="style1"> (German) 1401-1464Joseph Albo (Spanish) c.1380-c.1444 -- Jewish philosopher</span></text>
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<layer>background</layer>
<id>192</id>
<text>R1Ger/Aus/Rel/Phil</text>
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<name>R1Ger/Aus/Rel/Phil</name>
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card_12475.xml
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<text><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">ohn Dunstable</a></span><span class="style1"> c.1385-1453 - in the retinue of the Duke of Bedford in his regency of France -- Dunstable introduced the </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">triad</a></span><span class="style1"> to the continentAnon. English </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">carols</a></span><span class="style1"></span></text>
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<id>192</id>
<text>R1England/MUSIC</text>
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<name>R1England/MUSIC</name>
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card_11617.xml
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<text><span class="style1">OME - the Church - Martin V (r.1417-1431) was elected pope by the Council of Constance (1414-1417) - this ended the "Great Schism" or </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">dual papacy</a></span><span class="style1"> - Martin V burned </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Jan Hus</a></span><span class="style1">, and condemned </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">John Wycliffe</a></span><span class="style1">FLORENCE - </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Cosimo de Medici</a></span><span class="style1">MILAN - Visconti familyNAPLES - ruled by SpainVENICE - the doges ruled </span></text>
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<id>192</id>
<text>R1Italy/History</text>
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<name>R1Italy/History</name>
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card_9149.xml
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<text><span class="style1">ULERS OF VARIOUS HOUSESRupert of the Palatinate r.1400-1410Sigismund of Luxembourg r.1410-1432</span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Habsburg</a></span><span class="style1"> line lasts until 1806Albert II of Habsburg r.1438-1439 Pragmatic Sanction of Mainz of 1439 left the German Church under Imperial controlFrederick III of Habsburg r.1440-1493 last HRE to be crowned in Rome </span></text>
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<id>192</id>
<text>R1Ger/Aus/History</text>
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<name>R1Ger/Aus/History</name>
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card_8942.xml
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<text><span class="style1">ouse of Valois - Orleans side of Valois familyCharles VI "the Foolish" r.1380-1422 insane, lost at Agincourt to Henry V of EnglandCharles VII r.1422-1461 regent for his insane father - won </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">the 100 Years War</a></span><span class="style1"> in 1453 at the </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group"> Battle of Orleans</a></span><span class="style1"> Pragmatic Sanction of Bourges left the French Church under French control</span></text>
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<id>192</id>
<text>R1FRANCE/History</text>
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<name>R1FRANCE/History</name>
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card_6534.xml
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<text><span class="style1">alois Dukes of Burgundy - Burgundian side of Valois family</span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Philip the Bold</a></span><span class="style1"> r.1363-1404 married Margaret, Countess of Flanders in 1369 and the Netherlands was born (Burgundy and Flanders)John the Fearless r.1404-1419</span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Philip the Good</a></span><span class="style1"> r.1419-1467 sided with England (his sister married </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Henry VI</a></span><span class="style1"> of England) in </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">the 100 Years War</a></span><span class="style1"> in 1430 his army captured </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Joan of Arc</a></span><span class="style1"> and turned her over to England (she was burned at the stake in 1431) he later helped to drive the English from French soil (N. France: Flanders, capital is Bruges) (E. France: Burgundy, capital is Dijon)</span></text>
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<id>192</id>
<text>R1FLEMISH-BURG/History</text>
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<name>R1FLEMISH-BURG/History</name>
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card_3790.xml
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<text><span class="style1">ouse of Lancaster</span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Henry IV</a></span><span class="style1"> r.1399-1413Henry V r.1413-1422 his English archers were victorious at Agincourt in 1415 during </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">100 Years War</a></span><span class="style1"> with France - the war ended in 1453</span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Henry VI</a></span><span class="style1"> r.1422-1461 King of England and France ruled France with John of Lancaster, Duke of Bedford, as his regent founded Eton, King's College </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Dunstable</a></span><span class="style1">, the first great English composer, was in his court </span></text>
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<id>192</id>
<text>R1England/History</text>
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<name>R1England/History</name>
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card_44857.xml
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<text><span class="style1">n the Renaissance alone the Habsburgs encouraged or employed </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Durer</a></span><span class="style1">, the Bruegels, </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Bosch</a></span><span class="style1">, </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Titian</a></span><span class="style1">, </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">El Greco</a></span><span class="style1">, </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Isaac</a></span><span class="style1">, Senfl, de la Rue, Gombert, </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Willaert</a></span><span class="style1">, </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Lassus</a></span><span class="style1">, </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Victoria</a></span><span class="style1"> and Cabezon -- not to mention</span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group"> Erasmus</a></span><span class="style1">! Were it not for the taste and zeal for beauty of these four families and the church, very little of Renaissance culture would fill our great museums, churches and concert halls. What great families or institutions are doing their bit for a 20th century legacy?</span></text>
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<id>192</id>
<text>The Habsburgs.3</text>
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<name>The Habsburgs.3</name>
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card_44573.xml
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<text><span class="style1">he death of </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Charles II</a></span><span class="style1"> (r.1665-1700) of Spain in 1700 ended the Spanish Habsburg line. The German Habsburg direct male line ended with the death of </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Charles VI</a></span><span class="style1"> (r.1711-1740) in 1740. His daughter, Maria Theresa (r.1740-1780), married Francis of Lorraine and the Habsburg-Lorraine dynasty ruled until the abolition of the HRE in 1806 under pressure from </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Napoleon</a></span><span class="style1">. The Habsburg-Lorraines continued to rule as Emperors of Austria until 1918 when Austria became a republic.The Habsburgs, along with </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">the Medici</a></span><span class="style1"> in Florence, the Valois Dukes of Burgundy, the Tudors in England and the Roman Catholic Church were the greatest patrons of the Renaissance, maybe even the greatest patrons of all time. Among these, the Habsburgs showed the most continuous interest in the arts. Hardly a handful of the major artists and musicians of the Renaissance did not work for one of them. </span></text>
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<text>The Habsburgs.2</text>
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card_44454.xml
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<script>on mouseDownvideoPopUpend mouseDownMaximilian I,Emperor Charles V by Leone Leoni,Philip II of Spain,The Escorial - Philip II's palace-monastery in Spain,Habsburg troops outside Neuhofen - Austria - 1591,Detail of Habsburg troops,</script>
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<content>
<layer>background</layer>
<id>78</id>
<text>Early Renaissance (1400-1440) </text>
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<id>146</id>
<text>The Habsburgs /Historical Essays</text>
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<id>2</id>
<text><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">udolf I</a></span><span class="style1"> r.1273-1291, the first Habsburg to be a Holy Roman Emperor, was crowned in Aachen (= Aix-la-Chapelle), Charlemagne's capital. The Habsburg dynasty, taking its name from Habsburg Castle in Switzerland, ruled the HRE from 1298 to 1308 and 1438 to 1740. When Maximiliam I (r.1493-1519) married Mary of Burgundy in 1477 the Netherlands came into the Habsburg fold. Maximilian's grandson Charles V (r.1519-1556) inherited Spain from his mother Juana, the daughter of </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Ferdinand and Isabella</a></span><span class="style1"> (r.1474-1504). Charles V, the greatest of the Habsburgs, ruled the German states, Austria, Bohemia, the Netherlands, Spain, Naples, Milan, Sicily, various duchies including Hungary and even Mexico (conquered for him by </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Cortes</a></span><span class="style1">) and Peru (conquered for him by </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Pizarro</a></span><span class="style1">). (Suleiman the Magnificent r.1520-1566, the greatest Ottoman Turkish leader, attacked the HRE and won Hungary.) After Charles V, the empire's territories were divided between the Spanish Habsburgs (ruling Spain, Portugal, Milan, Naples, Sicily, </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">the Netherlands</a></span><span class="style1"> and the New World territories) and the German Habsburgs (ruling the German states, Austria and Bohemia).</span></text>
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<id>192</id>
<text>The Habsburgs.1</text>
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card_38188.xml
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<script>on mouseDownvideoPopUpend mouseDownCharles the Bold - Duke of Burgundy,</script>
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<content>
<layer>background</layer>
<id>78</id>
<text>Early Renaissance (1400-1440) </text>
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<content>
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<id>146</id>
<text>The Netherlands /Historical Essays</text>
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<id>2</id>
<text><span class="style1">hilip the Good was succeeded by his son Charles the Bold (r.1467-1477) who died fighting the Swiss. His daughter and heiress Mary of Burgundy (r.1477-1482) married HRE Maximilian I (r.1493-1519) and the Netherlands (Burgundy and Flanders) joined the Habsburg Holy Roman Empire. (See Essay "</span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">The Habsburgs</a></span><span class="style1">") Their daughter Margaret of Austria (1480-1530) ruled as regent of the Netherlands and their son Philip the Handsome (1478-1506) married Juana (1479-1555) of Aragon and Castile in 1496. Marriage was a very good thing for the Valois!</span></text>
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<id>192</id>
<text>The Netherlands.2</text>
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<name>The Netherlands.2</name>
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card_42689.xml
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<text><span class="style1">he </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Valois Dukes</a></span><span class="style1"> of Burgundy, fabulous patrons of the arts (</span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Van Eyck</a></span><span class="style1">, </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">van der Weyden</a></span><span class="style1">, </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Dufay</a></span><span class="style1">, </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Binchois</a></span><span class="style1"> et.al), were cousins of the Orleans side of the Valois family which ruled France. When, in 1369, Philip the Bold, Duke of Burgundy (r.1363-1404), married Margaret, Countess of Flanders, the Netherlands was born. (Bruges was the capital of Flanders, Dijon [as in the mustard] was the capital of Burgundy [as in the wine].) Their son, John the Fearless (r.1404-1419) was assassinated and his son Philip the Good (r.1419-1467) sided with England in </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">the 100 Years War</a></span><span class="style1">. His sister married </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Henry VI</a></span><span class="style1"> of England) and, after capturing </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Joan of Arc</a></span><span class="style1">, turned her over to the English. During Philip the Good's reign the Burgundian court was the most splendid in Europe. He instituted the Order of the Golden Fleece in honor of his marriage to Isabella of Portugal.</span></text>
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<id>192</id>
<text>The Netherlands.1</text>
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<name>The Netherlands.1</name>
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card_37721.xml
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<text><span class="style1">mong Brahe's contributions are a description of the nova in Cassiopeia, </span><span class="style2">De Nova Stella </span><span class="style1"> (1574) -- no one believed that there could be "new" stars. He showed that the orbit of the comet of 1577 was not circular, lay beyond the Moon and somehow passed through the solid "crystalline sphere" to which the Moon was believed to be attached. (</span><span class="style2">De Mundi Aetherii recentioribus phaenomenis, </span><span class="style1">1588.) His conclusions on the nova and comet contradicted both Aristotelian and Church doctrine which asserted that the heavens were perfect, i.e., circular orbits and unchanging stars, and that comets were atmospheric, sub-lunar phenomena. Brahe compiled a star catalogue, the first since </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Hipparchus</a></span><span class="style1"> 1800 years before, and an immense body of astronomical data. The corpus was given to his disciple </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Johannes Kepler</a></span><span class="style1">. </span></text>
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<layer>background</layer>
<id>146</id>
<text>General Essay</text>
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<layer>background</layer>
<id>78</id>
<text>Renaissance Science</text>
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<name>Renaissance Science.20</name>
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card_135754.xml
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<text><span class="style4">ieronymus Fabricius ab Aquapendente</span><span class="style1"> (1537-1619)Italian physician, anatomist and embryologist. Professor of Anatomy at Padua and mentor of </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">William Harvey</a></span><span class="style1">, the discoverer of the circulation of the blood. Fabricius explored comparative anatomy, comparative embryology and the anatomy of the heart and veins. His studies of the valves in veins proved that venous blood flows only towards the heart. This was cornerstone of Harvey's discovery of the circulation of the blood. </span><span class="style4">Volcher Coiter (or Coyter)</span><span class="style1"> (1534-1590)Dutch physician. Coiter was the first to note the difference between bone and cartilage. He also observed the separate dorsal and ventral nerve roots originating from the spinal cord. </span><span class="style4">Tycho Brahe</span><span class="style1"> (1546-1601)Danish astronomer. Brahe recognized the necessity of precision in observation and redesigned the quadrant and other (pre-telescopic) astronomical instruments. By calculating the limits of accuracy of his instruments he obtained the limits of accuracy of his observations. King Frederick II of Denmark built for him a marvelous personal observatory, Uraniborg, in 1580 -- Uranus is the muse of astronomy -- on a Baltic Sea island, Hveen or Ven. </span></text>
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<layer>background</layer>
<id>146</id>
<text>General Essay</text>
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<content>
<layer>background</layer>
<id>78</id>
<text>Renaissance Science</text>
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<name>Renaissance Science.19</name>
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card_135646.xml
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<text><span class="style4">ealdo Colombo</span><span class="style1"> (1516-1559)Italian physician and anatomist, </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Vesalius</a></span><span class="style1">' pupil and his successor as Professor of Anatomy at Padua. When Vesalius work became widely known and consequently, the subject of condemnation, Colombo joined the opposition and became one of the most violent of Vesalius' enemies. But he followed his master closely on the then controversial anatomy of the heart. In 1559 he published</span><span class="style2"> De re Anatomica,</span><span class="style1"> correctly describing the circulation of the blood from the heart to the lungs and back -- this being six years after </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Michael Servetus</a></span><span class="style1"> presented identical material. Although he was probably aware of Servetus' work he chose not to refer to it, apparently from fear of the </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Inquisition</a></span><span class="style1">. Servetus had been burnt alive by </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Calvin</a></span><span class="style1"> in 1553, together with his books. Both Colombo and Servetus discussed the aeration and reddening of the blood as it passed through the lungs, and also the pumping action of the heart. Colombo is the only predecessor referred by </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">William Harvey</a></span><span class="style1"> in his presentation of the systemic circulation. </span></text>
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<layer>background</layer>
<id>146</id>
<text>General Essay</text>
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<content>
<layer>background</layer>
<id>78</id>
<text>Renaissance Science</text>
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<name>Renaissance Science.18</name>
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card_135332.xml
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<text><span class="style4">iordano Bruno</span><span class="style1"> (1548-1600)Italian philosopher and astronomer, born Filippo il Nolano. In 1584 Bruno published the dialogues </span><span class="style2">Cena de la Ceneri</span><span class="style1"> (</span><span class="style2">The Ash Wednesday Supper</span><span class="style1"> ) and </span><span class="style2">De l'infinito universo e mondi</span><span class="style1"> (</span><span class="style2">On Infinity the Universe and the World</span><span class="style1"> ). He maintained the existence of 1) a heliocentric solar system, 2) a universe of infinite extent which was 3) filled with other solar systems! Worse yet (for him) was his statement that the </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Bible</a></span><span class="style1"> should be used to teach morality not astronomy. He was imprisoned for seven years by the Roman Inquisition, refused to recant and was gagged and burnt alive on 8 February 1600. </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Galileo</a></span><span class="style1"> was thirty-six years old at the time; when his turn came to be tried by the Inquisition in 1633, he recanted. Bruno had a powerful influence on science and philosophy. </span><span class="style4">Andrea Cesalpino</span><span class="style1"> (1519-1603)Italian physician and botanist. Cesalpino speculated on the circulation of the blood, </span><span class="style2">Questionum Medicarum </span><span class="style1"> (1593), but with no real evidence. In </span><span class="style2">De Plantis Libri XVI</span><span class="style1"> (1583) he classified plants according to their flowers and fruits, anticipating </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Linnaeus</a></span><span class="style1">.</span></text>
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<content>
<layer>background</layer>
<id>146</id>
<text>General Essay</text>
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<content>
<layer>background</layer>
<id>78</id>
<text>Renaissance Science</text>
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<name>Renaissance Science.17</name>
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card_135012.xml
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<text><span class="style4">erardus Mercator</span><span class="style1"> (Gerhard Kremer) (1512-1594)Belgian (born in Rupelmonde, Flanders) cartographer and mathematician. In 1552 he settled in Germany, becoming cosmographer to the Duke of Cleves. Mercator developed the Mercator Projection for mapping the spherical surface of the Earth into a flat surface map, </span><span class="style2">Nova et Aucta orbis terrae descriptio ad usum navigantium emendate accommadata,</span><span class="style1"> 1563. Using a Mercator map a navigator could now plot and follow a straight line course, knowing that the map direction is identical with the direction in which he is moving on the Earth's curved surface -- as determined by the point of the compass -- an enormous advance in navigation. The projection is made by (mathematically) placing a cylinder over the spherical earth, projecting the Earth's geographical features from the sphere unto the cylinder, then cutting the cylinder vertically and unrolling it to make a flat surface. </span></text>
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<content>
<layer>background</layer>
<id>146</id>
<text>General Essay</text>
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<text><span class="style1">lthough Gilbert was Francis Bacon's personal physician and Physician to the Court at which Bacon was Lord Chancellor, Bacon did not comment on either Gilbert's results or methods.</span><span class="style4">Robert Recorde</span><span class="style1"> (c.1510-1558)English mathematician and physician. He introduced the = symbol into mathematical notation -- these being parallel lines and therefore equal: </span><span class="style2">The Whetstone of Witte</span><span class="style1"> (1557). He was the first to write textbooks of astronomy and mathematics in English. </span><span class="style4">Rheticus (Georg Joachim von Lauchen)</span><span class="style1"> (1514-1574)Austrian-born German astronomer. The first public advocate of Copernicus' heliocentric theory. In 1541 he wrote </span><span class="style2">Narratio Prima de Libris Revolutionum</span><span class="style1"> (</span><span class="style2">The First Book of Revolutions</span><span class="style1"> ) describing </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Copernicus</a></span><span class="style1">' ideas. Rheticus assisted Copernicus in the preparation of the full text of </span><span class="style2">De Revolutionibus</span><span class="style1"> in 1543 but fled Prussia before it was published for fear of </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Martin Luther</a></span><span class="style1"> who fiercely opposed the idea of heliocentricity.</span></text>
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<text><span class="style4">onrad Gesner </span><span class="style1"> (1516-1565)Swiss physician and naturalist. His </span><span class="style2">Historia Animalium, </span><span class="style1"> in five volumes (1551-1587), is the zoological masterpiece of the Renaissance. Two novel concepts were introduced -- illustrations (some by </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Durer</a></span><span class="style1">) and alphabetical listings. </span><span class="style4">William Gilbert (William of Colchester)</span><span class="style1"> (1540-1603)English (born in Colchester, England) physician and scientist -- the "Father of Magnetism." Gilbert was personal physician to </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Elizabeth I</a></span><span class="style1">, </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">James I</a></span><span class="style1"> and </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Sir Francis Bacon</a></span><span class="style1">, i.e., Physician to the Court. He personally demonstrated many of his findings to the Court. Gilbert originated the scientific study of magnetism and distinguished between magnetic and electric effects; he simultaneously began the scientific study of electricity. He coined the word "electric." His major work is </span><span class="style2">De Magnete, Magneticisque et de Magno Magnete Tellure,</span><span class="style1"> 1600 (</span><span class="style2">On Magnetism, Magnetic Bodies and the Great Magnet Earth </span><span class="style1">). Gilbert performed detailed, precise and narrowly focussed experiments that elucidated the properties of magnets and showed that the Earth itself was a great magnet. Gilbert's accomplishments, together with those of </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Galileo</a></span><span class="style1"> and </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Harvey</a></span><span class="style1">, established the scientific method. </span></text>
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<text><span class="style4">iccolo Tartaglia (or Tartalea)</span><span class="style1"> (1499-1557)Italian mathematician, born Niccolo Fontana; Tartaglia means stammerer. He discovered the solution to the general cubic equation (x3) and showed it to </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Cardano</a></span><span class="style1"> who published it first. His </span><span class="style2">Nova Scienta</span><span class="style1"> (1537) is the first mathematical treatise on ballistics. </span><span class="style4">Paracelsus </span><span class="style1">(Philippus Aureolus Bombastus Theophrastus von Hohenheim) (1493-1541)Swiss physician, alchemist and frequent charlatan. Published the </span><span class="style2">Paragranum</span><span class="style1"> (1530), detailing the use of chemicals to treat disease (see </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Dioscorides</a></span><span class="style1">). Belittling anatomy, Paracelsus taught that life was a chemical process, therefore one must use chemicals to correct chemical imbalances which are called diseases. He used mercury to treat syphilis. Alchemy "is to make neither gold nor silver; its use is to make the supreme sciences and to direct them against disease." He was apparently murdered by his enemies; in his last moments he bequeathed his few possessions to the poor. </span></text>
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<text><span class="style4">abriele Fallopio</span><span class="style1"> (1523-1562)Italian physician and anatomist and Professor of anatomy at Padua. Discoverer of the Fallopian tubes (oviducts). </span><span class="style4">Girolamo Fracastoro</span><span class="style1"> (1483-1553)Italian physician. Fracastoro wrote the first authentic description of syphilis -- in a poem -- </span><span class="style2">Syphilis sive Morbus Gallicus</span><span class="style1"> (</span><span class="style2">Syphilis or the French Disease </span><span class="style1">), 1530. "Syphilus," a mythical shepherd (a son of Niobe) is depicted by Fracastoro as being stricken with "syphilis" for showing disrespect to the gods. In his </span><span class="style2">De Contagione et Contagiosus Morbis</span><span class="style1"> (1546), Fracastoro asserts that diseases are spread by "seeds" which pass from person to person. This is the earliest modern statement of the Germ Theory of Disease. Fracastoro first recognized syphilis in Naples in 1495 when it broke out in epidemic proportions, possibly brought to Europe by </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Columbus</a></span><span class="style1">' returning sailors. There is good evidence the disease did exist in pre-Columbian America, but this origin is strongly disputed.</span></text>
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<text><span class="style4">lisse Aldrovandi </span><span class="style1"> (1522-1605)Italian physician and naturalist. Aldrovandi revived the study of embryology. He discovered that the mammalian ovum passes from the ovary to the oviduct (</span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Fallopian</a></span><span class="style1"> tube). </span><span class="style4">Girolamo Cardano (Jerome Cardan)</span><span class="style1"> (1501-1576)Italian mathematician. In 1545 Cardano published the </span><span class="style2">Ars Magna,</span><span class="style1"> the first modern mathematical textbook. In it he proclaimed the solution to the generalized cubic equation (x3), which he had stolen from </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Tartaglia</a></span><span class="style1">. He himself did recognize the need for negative and imaginary numbers to give complete solutions to this type of equation. </span><span class="style4">Bartolommeo Eustachio</span><span class="style1"> (1520-1574)Italian physician and anatomist. Eustachio was a contemporary of </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Andreas Vesalius</a></span><span class="style1">. He made numerous original discoveries and was more accurate than Vesalius on many points (kidneys, lungs) but his works were unpublished -- therefore he had no influence. He was first published 140 years after his death in 1714. </span></text>
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<text><span class="style4">eorgius Agricola (Georg Bauer)</span><span class="style1"> (1494-1555)German physician, scholar and mineralogist -- the "Father of Mineralogy." His major works are </span><span class="style2">De natura fossilium,</span><span class="style1"> 1546 (fossils = minerals) and </span><span class="style2">De re metallica,</span><span class="style1"> 1556. He presented therein original and authoritative descriptions of mining technique and mine construction, metallurgy, the origin and classification of ores, assay methods and smelting procedures. He was the first to use the stratigraphic technique in geology. Agricola showed a salutary disregard for the "authority" of </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Aristotle</a></span><span class="style1"> and </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Pliny</a></span><span class="style1"> in these matters, preferring to rely on his own observations and experience.</span><span class="style4">Michael Servetus</span><span class="style1"> (1511-1553)Spanish-born French physician and theologian. Almost as an aside in his </span><span class="style2">Christianismi Restitutio</span><span class="style1"> of 1553 he correctly described the pulmonary circulation of the blood, i.e., from the heart to the lungs and back. He was the first to do so (see </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Realdo Colombo</a></span><span class="style1">). His main interests were in religious reform wherein he urged 1) the separation of the church from the state, and 2) that religious doctrine derive only from the </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Bible</a></span><span class="style1"> and the pre-</span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Constantine</a></span><span class="style1"> Church </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Fathers</a></span><span class="style1">. His excessive zeal in advancing these reforms led to the burning of his books by the Church and of </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">himself by Calvin</a></span><span class="style1">. </span></text>
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<text><span class="style1">wing to severe and unrelenting criticism (1), Vesalius was overcome by depression and burnt all of his unpublished manuscripts. These contained his results on physiology and anatomical pathology. In due course he did garner much support (2), but there is evidence that he was over sensitive and reacted excessively to the harsh criticism. Vesalius was one of the first scientists to work unfettered by the burden of the past. He believed in what his own eyes saw, not in what others, of lesser wisdom, said he should see. In this, along with Gilbert and Galileo, he had a seminal effect on the development of science and the methods of science. Notes:1) Vesalius is "a crazy fool who is poisoning the air of Europe with his vaporings." This from Sylvius (Jacques DuBois), Vesalius' instructor in anatomy. 2) Emperor </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Charles V</a></span><span class="style1"> (in Spain) received a report from the Theological Faculty of the University of Salamanca concerning Vesalius' efforts, "The dissection of human cadavers serves a useful purpose and is therefore permissible to Christians of the Catholic Church."</span></text>
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<text><span class="style1">he </span><span class="style2">Fabrica</span><span class="style1"> was the first scholarly work to demonstrate the ancient wisdom was in fact, merely ancient; it had a monumental and revolutionary impact on medicine and by extension, on all thinking. Vesalius' methods, accomplishments and contributions were: 1) Personally conducted lecture-demonstrations of human anatomy. The demonstrations were from cadavers, and frequently in a public forum. 2) Careful and exact dissections of the human body. The observations made during the dissections were accurately recorded and subsequently published in the </span><span class="style2">Fabrica. </span><span class="style1">3) Truly magnificent artistic renderings of human anatomy as illustrations the </span><span class="style2">Fabrica</span><span class="style1"> and his other works. Their high quality made his discoveries accessible to all.4) A remarkable insistence on the function of anatomical structures -- leading in particular to an understanding of muscle function.5) His dissection of the heart (correcting certain mistakes from Galen) led to the discovery of the circulation of the blood, by </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Servetus</a></span><span class="style1"> and </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Harvey</a></span><span class="style1">. 6) The origination of new techniques for dissection along with new instruments for this purpose. From 1543 on, the study of anatomy was Vesalian. </span></text>
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<text>Dissection of human cadavers was not permitted and thus Galen never dissected a human cadaver. (He performed many operations on living bodies -- that was permitted). Galen's human anatomy, and all human anatomy up to Vesalius, was based on inference, from animal anatomy on the one hand, from human skeletons on the other. From the 13th century on, Italian medical schools began human dissection for teaching purposes. As the gathered students observed, the barber-surgeons, who were in low esteem, dissected. On an elevated platform the professors lectured on the dissection by referring to charts drawn from Galen, which charts were also in the textbooks. The study of medicine in general and anatomy in particular was literary rather than experiential. Concepts and questions not treated in the standard (Galenic) texts were resolved by analogy from animal (Barbary ape and canine) anatomy and by logical extrapolation. Although there were no religious strictures here, nonetheless the prevailing disposition, as in religion, was to accept received wisdom without question.</text>
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<text><span class="style1">opernicus marks the beginning of the simultaneous revolutions in astronomy, physics and philosophical and religious thought: as man's abode, the Earth, was displaced from the center of the Universe -- so was man. Copernicus' influence was not immediate but gradually grew until the time of </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Galileo</a></span><span class="style1">, and afterwards </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Newton</a></span><span class="style1">. But it was not until 1822 that the Church acknowledged that the Sun was the center of the Solar System. </span><span class="style4">Andreas Vesalius</span><span class="style1"> (1514-1564) Belgian physician and anatomist. Court physician to </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Charles V</a></span><span class="style1"> and </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Philip II</a></span><span class="style1"> of Spain.MAJOR WORKS </span><span class="style2">De corporis humani fabrica</span><span class="style1"> (</span><span class="style2">The Structure of the Human Body, </span><span class="style1"> 1543) SIGNIFICANCE In Vesalius' time, anatomy was understood and taught according to </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Galen</a></span><span class="style1"> who had lived 1300 years before. Galen had practiced and written in Rome under the aegis of </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Marcus Aurelius</a></span><span class="style1">. He is second only to </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Hippocrates</a></span><span class="style1"> in the history of medicine. Galen was the great collector and organizer of medical science and made many original observations in anatomy and physiology -- but on animals. </span></text>
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<text><span class="style4">icolaus Copernicus</span><span class="style1"> (1473-1543) Polish astronomer. Copernicus lived in Germany from 1505 on.MAJOR WORK </span><span class="style2">De Revolutionibus Orbium Celestium</span><span class="style1"> (</span><span class="style2">The Revolutions of the Heavenly Bodies,</span><span class="style1"> 1543). Abbreviated, popular version published in 1530. Portions of the full text were distributed to his colleagues during his lifetime; publication of the full text was not until the year of his death. SIGNIFICANCE Copernicus gave us the first modern statement, with evidence, that the Earth revolved around the Sun (heliocentric) and not vice versa (geocentric). Similarly, he demonstrated that the (round) Earth rotated about its own axis causing the apparent motion of the Sun and stars. "If there be some babblers who, though ignorant of all mathematics, take upon them to to judge of these things, and dare to blame and cavil at my work, because of some passage of Scripture which they have wrested to their own purpose, I regard them not, and will not scruple to hold their judgement in contempt."</span></text>
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<text><span class="style4">ierre Belon</span><span class="style1"> (1517-1564)French naturalist. In 1551 Belon published </span><span class="style2">L'Histoire naturelle des estranges poissons marins,</span><span class="style1"> a fairly complete survey of Mediterranean sea-life which included however the beaver, hippopotamus and otter as fish. Far superior is his classic </span><span class="style2">Histoire des Oyseaux</span><span class="style1"> of 1553. He classified birds according to their anatomy and habits; his system become the model for the modern classification of his fellow countrymen Buffon and Cuvier. Belon presented the comparative anatomy of the bird and human skeletons much in the manner of </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Leonardo</a></span><span class="style1">'s horse and man.</span><span class="style4">Ambroise Pare</span><span class="style1"> (1510-1590)French physician. Pare is considered the "father of modern surgery." He became the court surgeon and improved the treatment of gunshot wounds. He substituted tying off of the arteries after amputation for the then common practice of cauterization with a red-hot iron! His </span><span class="style2">Cinq Livres de chirurgie</span><span class="style1"> (1562) was highly influential.</span></text>
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<text><span class="style4">eonardo da Vinci</span><span class="style1"> (1452-1519)</span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Italian painter</a></span><span class="style1">, sculptor, architect, engineer, inventor and anatomist. THE Renaissance Man. Leonardo discovered or conceived of: ANATOMY -- the homology between human and equine bones. ENGINEERING -- the flying machine, pendulum clock, roller bearings, the parachute, cranes, earth moving equipment, cannon castings, etc. He was also an innovative hydraulic engineer. GEOLOGY -- the hydrologic cycle: lake and ocean water evaporates, becomes clouds, then rain, then rivers, lakes and oceans. PALEONTOLOGY -- the idea that fossils were the remains of animals or plants of the past. PHYSICS -- the capillary effect. </span><span class="style4">Ottaviano dei Petrucci</span><span class="style1"> (1466-1539)In 1501 Petrucci printed the first </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">polyphonic</a></span><span class="style1"> music using movable type -- </span><span class="style2">Harmomices Musices Odecatron A</span><span class="style1"> </span><span class="style2">(100 Songs of Harmonic Music )</span><span class="style1">, thereby becoming the world's first music publisher. </span></text>
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<text><span class="style4">icholas of Cusa</span><span class="style1"> (1401-1464)</span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">German cardinal</a></span><span class="style1">, mathematician and experimental botanist -- a paradigm for the Renaissance Man. Advocate of the experimental method and used it himself to demonstrate that plants absorb nutriment from the air, and therefore that air has weight. He believed that the Earth moved. "A learned man is one who is aware of his own ignorance." </span><span class="style4">Regiomontanus (Johannes Mueller) </span><span class="style1"> (1436-1476) German astronomer, mathematician and prelate. Regiomontanus translated </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Ptolemy</a></span><span class="style1">'s </span><span class="style2">Almagest</span><span class="style1"> into Latin directly from the Greek original; contemporary Latin editions had been from the Arabic translation from the Greek. Regiomontanus' edition corrected the sundry errors that had been introduced. He recorded the passage of a comet later identified by </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Halley</a></span><span class="style1"> in 1472. His </span><span class="style2">De triangulis omnimodis libri quinque</span><span class="style1"> </span><span class="style2">(Five Books on Triangles of All Kinds) </span><span class="style1"> was the first modern textbook of trigonometry. He died at the age of forty either from the </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Black Plague</a></span><span class="style1"> or by poison from his enemies. </span></text>
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<text><span class="style1">OME PROMINENT SCIENTISTS OF THE RENAISSANCE(For a more comprehensive listing see "SCIENCE" grid for each country)</span><span class="style4">Johannes Gutenberg</span><span class="style1"> (1400-1468)In 1454 Gutenberg printed the </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Bible</a></span><span class="style1"> using movable type -- the invention of printing. This single invention led to the voluminous publication of newspapers, periodicals and books -- the beginning of the revolution in communications. The consequences were: ubiquitous literacy; the rapid, broad and accurate dissemination of political events and scientific findings; the creation of a vast substratum of information and interpretation -- readily replaceable if lost -- libraries (see the </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Mouseion</a></span><span class="style1">). Perhaps the most important invention -- and event -- in history. It was no longer possible to fool all of the people. The modern world is different from the ancient world in this respect.</span></text>
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<text><span class="style1">achiavelli held that rulers must be prepared to do evil if they think that good will come of it, the end always justifying the means. In a famous passage he wrote about "whether it is better to be loved rather than feared, or feared rather than loved. It might perhaps be answered that we should wish to be both: but since love and fear can hardly exist together, if we must choose between them, it is far safer to be feared than loved." (</span><span class="style2">The Prince,</span><span class="style1"> Chp. 8)Machiavelli called his view "ruthless expediency," an attitude that has come to be called "Machiavellian." (Politicians will forever be in his debt!) In Machiavelli's defence, it should be pointed out that he took it for granted that the ruler or prince was always interested in the good of the state. Machiavelli's other important works included: </span><span class="style2">Discourses on Livy </span><span class="style1"> (1513-1517) - a study of republican government, and </span><span class="style2">The Art of War</span><span class="style1"> (1521).</span></text>
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<text><span class="style4">iccolo Machiavelli</span><span class="style1"> 1469-1527Statesman, scholar and political philosopher. Born in Florence, Machiavelli lived under Medici rule and </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Savonarola</a></span><span class="style1">'s regime. When, in 1498, Savonarola was overthrown, Machiavelli rapidly rose to political power as a diplomat in the republic. When </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">the Medici</a></span><span class="style1"> family returned to power in 1512, Machiavelli was dismissed from his diplomatic post and even tortured. Having been forced into retirement, he turned to writing and the study of ancient history. The "little book" he finished in 1513, </span><span class="style2">The Prince</span><span class="style1"> (pub. 1532 posth.), was intended to be a handbook for rulers (and even states themselves), advising them on what to do and what to say to achieve and hold political power. He dedicated his masterpiece to the grandson of Lorenzo the Magnificent in a vain hope of being brought back to public office.</span></text>
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<text><span class="style1">rasmus was man of deep religious faith and conviction, but a "Renaissance" man, not a "Reformation" man, given his belief that reform should come from within the church. Given to exposing the weaknesses of human nature and of governments and their claims of nationalism (he disapproved of Luther's strong nationalistic feelings), Erasmus satirized all groups equally; churchmen, merchants, politicians, philosophers, courtiers, scientists, even kings were objects of his scorn when perceived as taken with their own importance. There were great men that he both admired and emulated. </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Christ</a></span><span class="style1"> headed his list which also included </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Socrates</a></span><span class="style1"> and </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Cicero</a></span><span class="style1">. He thus presented the Renaissance humanist viewpoint of faith in the dignity of man, or at least of a few good men. Erasmus combined his love of the classics with a concern for Christian values. In addition to the works mentioned above and his scholarly editions of classical authors, Erasmus also wrote </span><span class="style2">Handbook of a Christian Warrior</span><span class="style1"> (1503). </span></text>
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<text><span class="style1">or Erasmus, piety and moral righteousness stood above orthodoxy. "It may happen, it often does happen, that an abbot is a fool or a drunkard. He issues an order to the brotherhood in the name of holy obedience. And what will such an order be? An order to observe chastity? An order to be sober? An order to tell no lies? Not one of these things. It will be that a brother is not to learn Greek; he is not to seek to instruct himself. He may be a sot. He may go with prostitutes. He may be full of hatred and malice. He may never look inside the scriptures. No matter. He has not broken any oath. He is an excellent member of the community. While if he disobeys such a command as this from an insolent superior there is stake or dungeon for him instantly." (J.A. Froude, </span><span class="style2">Life and Letters of Erasmus,</span><span class="style1"> New York, 1894, p. 68.)</span></text>
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<text><span class="style1">rasmus' masterpiece, </span><span class="style2">The Praise of Folly</span><span class="style1"> (1509, pub. 1511), dedicated to </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Sir Thomas More</a></span><span class="style1">, in whose house he wrote it, mocked the </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">monastic life</a></span><span class="style1"> and hypocrisy in the Roman Catholic Church. Erasmus did not go as far in his criticisms as his contemporary, </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Luther</a></span><span class="style1">. He both defended Luther and at the same time opposed some of his views and teachings. Ironic in spirit, Erasmus has been criticized for not being more active in support of the Protestant Reformation. In fact he was a strong proponent of much that the Reformation stood for, but he was not by nature a fighter. Though his </span><span class="style2">Colloquia</span><span class="style1"> was critical of the abuses of the Roman Catholic Church, he opposed the dogmatic theology of most of the reformers and attacked Luther in </span><span class="style2">De Libero Arbitrio</span><span class="style1"> (1523). Erasmus fought against all forms of religious fanaticism and held that reason was the way to true enlightenment. He was vehement in his call for moderation and tolerance on all sides. Even though Erasmus was a deeply committed moderate and argued for reform from within the church, </span><span class="style2">The Praise of Folly</span><span class="style1"> was placed on </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">the index of forbidden books</a></span><span class="style1"> and he was condemned as an "impious heretic" by </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">the Council of Trent</a></span><span class="style1">. </span></text>
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<text><span class="style4">rasmus (Desiderius Erasmus)</span><span class="style1"> c.1466-1536Dutch humanist, scholar, theologian and priest, Erasmus is widely considered to be the symbol of </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">humanism</a></span><span class="style1">. Like </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Nicholas of Cusa</a></span><span class="style1">, he studied with the Brethren of the Common Life in Deventer, Holland. He was thoroughly cosmopolitan, travelling widely, studying and teaching in Paris, Oxford (1499) and Cambridge (1509-1514), where he was professor of divinity and the first professor of Greek. Fluent in Greek, he published a scholarly edition of the Greek New Testament (1516). He wrote to friend and foe alike in a prodigious output of correspondence in Latin, and published </span><span class="style2">Adages</span><span class="style1"> (1500, 1508) and </span><span class="style2">Colloquia</span><span class="style1"> (1518) as examples of good Latin prose and composition. He attacked grammarians as pedants, members of "knowledge factories...admiring and praising each other, trading compliment for compliment, thus mutually scratching each others itch." (</span><span class="style2">Erasmus, In Praise Of Folly, </span><span class="style1"> H.H. Hudson, translator, Princeton. 1941, 71-72).</span></text>
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<text><span class="style1"> humanist and scholar, Ramus was a student and critic of Aristotle. Although a Latinist of the first order and an outstanding teacher, the heart of his work was in his logic. Ramus believed that logic was best utilized when its principles were applied to everyday life. (If he lived in the 19th century, he would have been called a </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">pragmatist</a></span><span class="style1">.) He tried to overcome the artificial nature of the subject by using concrete examples from life in order to enliven the topic and enable his students to see how the human mind really worked. It is interesting to note in passing that when </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Jonathan Edwards</a></span><span class="style1"> was a student at Yale College in the early eighteenth century, he was taught the Ramist system of logic rather than the older </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">scholastic</a></span><span class="style1"> logic.</span></text>
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<text><span class="style1">amus, holding that reason was more important than authority, was immediately attacked by faculty traditionalists in Paris, who succeeded in having him temporarily banned from teaching logic. Later, restored to favor by King </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Henry II</a></span><span class="style1">, he went on to become professor of rhetoric and philosophy at the College Royal. Ramus became a convert to Lutheranism between 1561 and 1563 and visited Germany and Switzerland from 1568 to 1570. He was among the many French Protestants who lost their lives in the St. Bartholomew's Day Massacre. A prolific writer, his works include commentaries on Latin poets and prose writers and treatises on grammar, rhetoric, mathematics, physics, metaphysics, ethics, politics and theology. Sixty works in all were published, not counting his letters. There have been over seven hundred published editions of single or collected works, and two-hundred and fifty editions of </span><span class="style2">Training in Dialectics,</span><span class="style1"> his most popular work (and the first work on logic to be published in French.) </span></text>
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<text><span class="style1">hough More was </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Henry VIII</a></span><span class="style1">'s Lord Chancellor, he opposed the king's claim to supreme authority over the church. More resigned his chancellorship in 1532 and refused to affirm the Act of Supremacy (1534). After fifteen months in the </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Tower of London</a></span><span class="style1">, he was tried, convicted of treason and, on 6 July 1535, beheaded on Tower Hill. (The Roman Catholic church canonized him as a saint in 1935.) More's other important works include: </span><span class="style2">Responsio ad convitia Martini Luitheri </span><span class="style1"> (1523) -- his answer to Luther's attack on Henry VIII's </span><span class="style2">Assertio Septem Sacramentorum;</span><span class="style1"> </span><span class="style2"> Dialogue Concerning Heresies and Matters of Religion</span><span class="style1"> (1529) -- directed against Tyndale's writings; </span><span class="style2">History of King </span><span class="style8"><a href="#" class="group">Richard III</a></span><span class="style2"> </span><span class="style1"> (1513).</span><span class="style4">Petrus Ramus (Pierre de la Ramee)</span><span class="style1"> 1515-1572 An ardent critic of </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Aristotle</a></span><span class="style1">, this French philosopher was also the most eminent logician of his time. After early schooling in Cuts, Ramus enrolled at the College of Navarre at the University of Paris obtaining his masters degree in 1536. He taught at the College du Mans in Paris and later at the College de l'Ave Maria. His two most important works were </span><span class="style2">Training in Dialectics</span><span class="style1"> (1555) and </span><span class="style2">Remarks on Aristotle</span><span class="style1"> (1543). </span></text>
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<text><span class="style4">ir Thomas More</span><span class="style1"> 1478-1535English humanist, lawyer, scholar, statesman, member of Parliament, speaker of the House of Commons and Lord Chancellor (1529-1532). Called "a man for all seasons" by a contemporary, More, a student of Greek and Latin, befriended </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Erasmus</a></span><span class="style1"> (who dedicated his </span><span class="style2">Praise of Folly</span><span class="style1"> to More) and rose to great prominence as a public servant. His masterpiece, </span><span class="style2">Utopia</span><span class="style1"> (1516), describes (in a term he coined) an imaginary ideal community governed entirely by reason. More cared deeply about the plight of the common man and felt strongly that the state existed for the good of its citizens. (More's contemporary humanist and statesman, </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Niccolo Machiavelli</a></span><span class="style1"> did not share Sir Thomas' values!) In More's </span><span class="style2">Utopia</span><span class="style1"> all goods were to be held in common, money (it's love being the "root of all evil") would not be necessary, there would be no social injustice or inequity, people would engage in intellectual pursuits and be happy doing good deeds for each other -- in other words, a community based on Christ's "Sermon on the Mount." </span></text>
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<text><span class="style4">ico Della Mirandola </span><span class="style1"> 1463-1494 Italian humanist and leading Renaissance scholar. Pico was a prodigy who became a member of </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Ficino</a></span><span class="style1">'s Platonic Academy in Florence, an informal club subsidized by </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">the Medici</a></span><span class="style1">. His life was short, but filled with an insatiable search for knowledge. Fluent in Arabic, Aramaic, and Hebrew, Pico was a student of Jewish allegory, Arab philosophy and the medieval </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">scholastics</a></span><span class="style1">. The breadth of his interests is shown in his </span><span class="style2">Oration on the Dignity of Man</span><span class="style1"> (1486) in which he cites Chaldean and Persian theologians, the priests of </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Apollo</a></span><span class="style1">, </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Socrates</a></span><span class="style1">, </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Pythagoras</a></span><span class="style1">, </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Cicero</a></span><span class="style1">, </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Moses</a></span><span class="style1">, </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">St. Paul</a></span><span class="style1">, </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">St. Thomas Aquinas</a></span><span class="style1">, </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">St. Augustine</a></span><span class="style1">, Mohammed and many others. His purpose was to find the central core of truth in all human learning. Pico failed, but he must be admired for the effort in which he introduced comparative religion and comparative philosophy as areas of study. Throughout his short career (he died at the age of 31) he was also known for his modesty. Pico's published works also include: </span><span class="style2">Heptaplus</span><span class="style1"> (1490) and </span><span class="style2">De ente et uno</span><span class="style1"> (1492).</span></text>
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<text><span class="style4">homas de Vio, Cardinal Cajetan</span><span class="style1"> 1469-1534 Important Catholic Thomist theologian. Author of over 150 works in theology, philosophy and exegesis, Cajetan was noted for his commentary on </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">St. Thomas Aquinas</a></span><span class="style1">' </span><span class="style2">Summa Theologiae.</span><span class="style1"> He also became known for his view that the immortality of the soul could be proven philosophically. This was one of the most hotly debated issues in late medieval and early modern philosophy and theology. For Cajetan, the issue was settled. Having broken ranks with St. Thomas Aquinas on this one issue, he was otherwise acknowledged as one of the greatest Renaissance Thomists and philosophers. In the first part of his commentary on the </span><span class="style2">Summa</span><span class="style1"> (1507) and later in his commentary on </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Aristotle</a></span><span class="style1">'s </span><span class="style2">De Anima</span><span class="style1"> (1509), he clearly outlines his philosophical argument for the immortality of the soul. He was made a cardinal in 1517 and, later, as papal legate to Germany, examined </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Martin Luther</a></span><span class="style1"> and helped draft the papal bull that condemned him.</span></text>
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<text><span class="style1">n 1459 he began his study of Greek, which in turn began his life's work as a translator and annotator of Plato and the Platonic philosophers. Mostly under the patronage of </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Cosimo de Medici</a></span><span class="style1"> and his successors, Ficino produced translations of Plato's complete works, commentaries on Plato, the works of </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Plotinus</a></span><span class="style1">, commentaries by the disciples of Plotinus, translations of </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Pseudo-Dionysius</a></span><span class="style1">, and his own works, </span><span class="style2">On the Christian Religion</span><span class="style1"> (1437) and </span><span class="style2">Platonic Theology Concerning the Immortality of the Soul</span><span class="style1"> (1474), which were attempts to fuse Christianity and the Platonic tradition into a single system. He carried on an extensive correspondence and maintained an informal discussion group that met regularly in his home. </span></text>
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<text><span class="style1">alla accused St. Thomas of being a poor synthesizer of philosophy and theology. "Lorenzo Valla gives an excellent example of the humanists' scorn for the thought of their medieval predecessors." (Leonard Kennedy, </span><span class="style2">Renaissance Philosophy: New Translations,</span><span class="style1"> Mouton, 1973, p.16). Valla also attacked papal secular sovereignty by exposing as historical papal fiction the so-called </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Donation of Constantine</a></span><span class="style1">, an 8th-century forgery purporting to be a grant by Emperor Constantine to Pope Sylvester I (r.314-335) of the imperial rights over Italy and supremacy over all other Western religious leaders.</span><span class="style4">Marsilio Ficino</span><span class="style1"> 1433-1499 Humanist philosopher (he became the most famous exponent of </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Platonism</a></span><span class="style1"> in the Renaissance), linguist and theologian whose translations of classical Greek philosophers led to the Florentine revival of Platonic thought in the Renaissance. Ficino studied at Florence and Bologna before becoming a member of the Platonic Academy at Florence. </span></text>
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<text><span class="style1">usa's important works include: </span><span class="style2"> De concordantia catholica</span><span class="style1"> (1433) -- on the supremacy of church councils over the pope [he later switched his position] and </span><span class="style2">De Docta Ignorantia</span><span class="style1"> </span><span class="style2">(On Learned Ignorance)</span><span class="style1"> (1440) -- in which he held that all human knowledge is simply learned ignorance. </span><span class="style4">Lorenzo (or Laurentius) Valla</span><span class="style1"> 1407-1457 Valla was a fifteenth-century humanist interested in philosophy. In 1431 he published </span><span class="style2">De Voluptate,</span><span class="style1"> a work on the </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Stoics and Epicureans</a></span><span class="style1">, later revised and republished as </span><span class="style2">De Vero Bono.</span><span class="style1"> Mainly a philologist, teacher of rhetoric and translator, in 1457 he was invited to preach the sermon honoring </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">St. Thomas Aquinas</a></span><span class="style1"> before the </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Dominican</a></span><span class="style1"> Order in Rome. He attacked St. Thomas and the entire scholastic tradition. He particularly thought St. Thomas to be a poor philosopher and accused him of not knowing Greek, using poor Latin, of ignoring philosophy and of being too devoted to logic and metaphysics in formulating his thoughts.</span></text>
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<text><span class="style1">usa has been called "the first modern thinker." (Ernst Cassirer, </span><span class="style2">The Individual and the Cosmos in Renaissance Philosophy,</span><span class="style1"> New York, 1963, p. 10). He was the first to join theology and epistemology in that he asked not about God but about the possibility of knowledge about God. For Cusa, the logical system that had been the basis for </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">scholasticism</a></span><span class="style1"> was no longer tenable. The distance between the finite and the infinite remain the same no matter how many intermediate terms and definitions are placed between them. He was also interested in mystical theology, but again insisted that one cannot love what one does not know. By a single act, in a sort of vision or mystical experience, he believed that one could place oneself into an immediate relationship with God . Cusa was a model of the "Renaissance man." A noted collector of books (he seems to have commissioned a number of translations of ancient texts for his personal library), Cusa maintained an active interest in speculative mathematics, statistics, theories of movement, astronomy and cosmography as well as church history, political history and intellectual history. </span></text>
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<text><span class="style1">us became an instant martyr throughout Bohemia, which was in a state of revolt. Ultimately, the movements that grew up following his death combined into the "Unitas Fratum" (Unity of Bohemian Brethren), the forerunner of the </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Moravians</a></span><span class="style1">. Because of their protests against ecclesiastical abuses, exaltation of the Bible and strong call for church reform, Wycliffe and Hus have been called forerunners of the Protestant Reformation, or pre-Reformers. This designation seems justly deserved.</span><span class="style4">Nicholas of Cusa (or Nicholas Cusanus)</span><span class="style1"> 1401-1464 Influential German philosopher, mathematician, </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">experimental scientist</a></span><span class="style1"> and cardinal. Cusa studied with the Brethren of the Common Life in Deventer, Holland (</span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Erasmus</a></span><span class="style1"> also studied there) and then at the universities of Heidelberg, Padua, Rome and Cologne. Cusa later became Bishop of Brixen (Italy) and a cardinal. He was a scholar of the first rank with interests in astronomy, law, mathematics and theology. </span></text>
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<text><span class="style1">n 1409, Pope Alexander V condemned Wycliffe's ideas and ordered all of his writings to be publicly burned. (Shades of </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Dr. Goebbels</a></span><span class="style1">!) The pope also forbade all preaching outside of the church and, as Hus continued to preach to huge crowds at the Bethlehem Chapel (often using Wycliffe's writings in his sermons), he was excommunicated. Though the public supported him, even with riots against church authorities, King Wenceslas IV of Bohemia advised him to leave Prague, as the pope had placed the city under interdict in 1411. Given a safe conduct pass by the </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Holy Roman Emperor Sigismund</a></span><span class="style1">, Hus fled to Constance, Germany, where he wrote his major work, </span><span class="style2">De Ecclesia</span><span class="style1"> (On the Church) (1413). The German faction at the University of Prague, having withdrawn to form the new University of Leipzig, took their revenge on Hus at the Council of Constance. Hus was put on trial for heresy and not allowed to speak in his own defence nor have anyone speak for him. He refused to recant and was burned at the stake on 6 July 1415. (Perhaps not a good example of the love Christ preached!)</span></text>
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<text><span class="style1">OME PROMINENT PHILOSOPHERS AND THEOLOGIANS OF THE RENAISSANCE(For a more comprehensive listing see "REL/PHIL" grid for each country)</span><span class="style4">Jan Hus</span><span class="style1"> c.1369-1415Bohemian (Czech) priest, theological reformer and martyr. In his theological studies at the University of Prague, Hus became acquainted with the writings of the English reformer John Wycliffe. (When </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Richard II</a></span><span class="style1"> of England married Anne of Bohemia, students from Bohemia went to Oxford where they heard Wycliffe. They took his writings with them when they returned home and Hus translated Wycliffe's </span><span class="style2">Trialogus</span><span class="style1"> into Czech.) Hus became rector of the university and a popular preacher at the Bethlehem Chapel, preaching twice daily -- but preaching sermons critical of the clergy, the papacy and religious abuses such as the selling of indulgences (i.e., the remission of sins for money!). Hus also maintained that the </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Bible</a></span><span class="style1"> was the sole final authority, not the pope or general councils. </span></text>
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<text><span class="style1">ut the </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Inquisition</a></span><span class="style1"> (whose chief function was the punishment of heretics) was retained and the Index of Forbidden Books (listing publications banned for reading by Roman Catholics) was drawn up in 1559. (Hardliners rarely like to let go!) A number of official apologists for the teachings of the church then published supporting positions adopted at the Council of Trent. Mysticism was also recognized and even encouraged within the Church. Many of the conflicts that lead to the Council of Trent were either not dealt with or unresolved, leaving some feeling that the Council had not gone far enough in its reforming efforts. By 1648 the reforming zeal had weakened and the reform effort was virtually over. </span></text>
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<text>Charitable works were encouraged, orphanages founded and women's religious orders were begun, such as the Ursuline Sisters, a teaching order; existing women's religious orders were reformed. The Council of Trent held a total of twenty-five sessions in eighteen years. Traditional Roman Catholic teaching was affirmed, giving the Council an "anti-Protestant" cast, though not as anti-Protestant as was anticipated. Most of what was decided was left open to interpretation, leaving the door open for conversation and dialogue which would come about much later. Bishops were now assigned more supervisory roles and in the main were expected to live in their diocese. Clandestine marriage was forbidden, and seminaries for the training of priests were established. </text>
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<text><span class="style1">hree approaches must be noted. The first was the effort to renew or reform existing orders, religious houses and to improve the training of diocesan priests. The second was to create new orders, vocations or oratories (confraternities: 1/2 laymen, 1/2 priests). The third was to call a major Church Council, </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">the Council of Trent</a></span><span class="style1">, which met in several sessions from 1545 to 1563. Actual reforms were accomplished at lower hierarchical levels meaning that the role of the pope and of the papal curia (court) were changed very little. The popes generally refused to give up either power or prerogatives. New religious orders were founded and old orders were reformed and renewed. Personal piety increased, and the emphasis on training of priests lead to a better educated clergy. Biblical studies were encouraged along humanistic lines and a new missionary zeal was born, carried in part by the Society of Jesus (Jesuits) founded by Ignatius Loyola (1491-1556). </span></text>
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<text><span class="style1">arried to Mary, one of James II's two daughters, his army was successful and with the </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Glorious Revolution</a></span><span class="style1"> the reign of William and Mary began in 1689. The Toleration Act of 24 May 1689 effectively ended opposition to religious dissent in England and the English Reformation came to a close. THE COUNTER-REFORMATION, or CATHOLIC REFORMATIONThis movement was an effort both to "counter" the attacks of the Protestant Reformation and implement needed reforms within the Roman Catholic church. The Counter Reformation was only partially successful on both fronts. As a Catholic Reformation this was a serious attempt to recognize and deal with the need for reform within the Church. The effort was most successful in the stronger, or more loyal Roman Catholic countries. </span></text>
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<text><span class="style1">he English Reformation continued on, played out primarily in the political arena. Bishop William Laud became the feared enforcer of the Act of Uniformity and non-conformity was punishable by jail terms, as </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">John Bunyan</a></span><span class="style1"> was later to find out. The one great accomplishment was the Westminster Confession presented to Parliament for approval in 1646. Formally approved in 1648 and thoroughly Reformed in content, this is one of the great statements of Calvinism. Charles I was captured and beheaded in 1649 and the period known as the Commonwealth (1649-1660) was inaugurated under </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Oliver Cromwell</a></span><span class="style1"> (r.1649-1658). The monarchy was restored under Charles II (r.1660-1685 - son of the unfortunate Charles I) who did not support reforming efforts. (See Baroque Essay: </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">The Restoration</a></span><span class="style1">) He was succeeded by his brother, James II (r.1685-1688) who attempted to return England to Roman Catholicism. This caused an immense reaction and William of Orange was invited to England. </span></text>
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<text><span class="style1">uring the early part of his reign, a group of largely middle-class Englishmen formed a joint-stock company, sold all the shares to those who were leaving, and, as the Massachusetts Bay Company, set sail for America in 1630. In the next ten years some twenty thousand followed to establish the Boston and other Puritan Massachusetts colonies. Free to govern themselves and with no debt obligations in England, these colonies flourished. Remarkably, some 146 learned clergy (graduates of Cambridge, Oxford and Trinity College, Dublin) made this journey. They established churches in the reformed tradition of </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Calvin</a></span><span class="style1"> and there soon followed elementary education (the Boston Latin School) and higher education in 1636 with the founding of Harvard College. </span></text>
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<text><span class="style1">he second event was the appearance of small, separatist sects devoted to total separation of church and state. Under the Act of Uniformity, these sects were illegal and subject to persecution. Begun by those who has visited Europe (primarily Holland where they had contacted such groups as the </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Mennonites</a></span><span class="style1">) and by some whose study of the Bible had led them to believe that such separation was correct for a true or "gathered" church, another aspect of the English Reformation was born. These small sectarian groups were the origins of the Baptist and Congregational churches, as they would later be called. One such small group, after being dissatisfied with their stay in Holland, returned to England in order to go on to America. They were the Pilgrim settlers who later went to Massachusetts Bay in 1620 where they founded the Plymouth colony. Another larger group began to realize that their hopes for reform of the Church of England were dim and also began to plan migration to the New World. In 1625 James I died, and was succeeded by his son, Charles I (r.1625-1649). </span></text>
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<text><span class="style1">t one such place he was presented with a petition signed by some one thousand persons, known as the "Millenary Petition." It asked for immediate reform of the Church of England along Calvinistic presbyterial lines. He received the petition, but said nothing. Later, in January 1604, he summoned the petitioners to </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Hampton Court</a></span><span class="style1"> where the petition was formally rejected and where he made his well-known "no Bishop, no King" statement. Once again the hopes of the Presbyterian Puritans were dashed. It was during the reign of James I that two significant events occurred. The first was the publishing of the Authorized Version or King James Version (KJV) of the Bible in 1611. Some seventy scholars had been commissioned by James to produce the work. Subsequently the King James version became the most used English translation of all Bibles until recent times. For many, the Elizabethan English embodied in this text is irreplaceable. (An argument can be made that the three greatest influences on the modern English language are the works of </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Shakespeare</a></span><span class="style1">, the </span><span class="style2">Book of Common Prayer</span><span class="style1"> and the King James Version of the Bible.)</span></text>
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<text>The effort to reform the church continued throughout the entire reign of Elizabeth I with the intention of a forced adoption of a presbyterian (Calvinistic or democratic rule by elected elders) form of church government rather than the episcopal (authoritarian rule by bishops) form in use. Throughout her long reign, Elizabeth proved herself a master at containing the various factions politically, ecclesiastically and in foreign policy. She was her fathers daughter, a master politician. Increasingly, those who sought democratic reform within the Church of England were referred to as "Puritans." Elizabeth died unmarried and childless. The crown then passed to James VI of Scotland (also known as James I of England r. 1603-1625), son of Mary, Queen of Scots (r.1561-1587), a rival Elizabeth ordered to be murdered. Soon after the death of Elizabeth, James I began a triumphant pilgrimage from Edinburgh in Scotland to London, receiving the accolades of the people as he passed through villages and towns. </text>
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<text><span class="style1">gain, the succession passed to the remaining daughter of Henry VIII, Elizabeth Tudor (now </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Elizabeth I</a></span><span class="style1"> r.1553-1603). Queen Elizabeth I was a moderate Protestant by preference and it was during her reign that the Church of England (Anglican Church) really took its shape and form. Parliament quickly restored the Act of Uniformity and the Act of Supremacy and issued a revised </span><span class="style2">Book of Common Prayer.</span><span class="style1"> Those who had fled to the Reformed centers in Europe returned, even more bent on reforming the church internally. The center of their activity became the Parliament. Elizabeth I began an interesting practice: she promoted ecclesiastical authorities from among the moderate Protestants who had gone underground. The second Anglican Archbishop of Canterbury, Matthew Parker (1504-1575), was such a moderate. On the other hand, she turned to those with reforming goals for government leadership, and centered the controversy in the Parliament, not in the church. </span></text>
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<text><span class="style1">uring her reign an estimated three hundred Protestants, including</span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group"> Archbishop Cranmer</a></span><span class="style1"> and many other prominent citizens, were burned at the stake (hence the term "bloody"). More than eight hundred fled to the continent, almost all to the centers of the Reformed faith, while others went underground in England. Mary wed </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Philip II</a></span><span class="style1"> of Spain (r.1556-1598), she for love, he for dynastic purposes. He soon left for Spain, never to return. As for Mary Tudor, the tide of reform could not be reversed, and the inclusion of some fifty women and children among those martyred caused the English people to revolt. At her death, Mary was not mourned. </span></text>
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<text><span class="style1">enry VIII was succeeded by his son, Edward VI, (r.1547-1553) who was nine years old. The government was conducted by a privy council. The Act of Uniformity, of later consequence, was passed in 1549, the </span><span class="style2">Book of Common Prayer</span><span class="style1"> was published in the same year, and a major controversy began to develop over the wearing of ecclesiastical vestments for services. This controversy may be the source for the term "Puritan" as the concentration on vestments was seen as an effort to purify the church of its visible associations with Roman Catholicism. A revised Prayer Book was issued in 1552 as well as a new Act of Uniformity. Both were clearly more Protestant in content and purpose. Edward VI, who died when only sixteen, was succeeded by the oldest daughter of Henry VIII whose mother was Catherine of Aragon. Raised a Roman Catholic, Mary restored the Roman Catholic Church in England. Mary Tudor ("Bloody" Mary I r.1553-1558) also lived only seven years as monarch. </span></text>
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<text><span class="style1">his was done by the Parliament adopting the Act of Supremacy (1534) by which Henry VIII was declared to be head of the church in England. The pope was thus replaced in England by the king.Henry meanwhile tired of Anne Boleyn who had given him a daughter, Elizabeth; he had Anne beheaded and married Jane Seymour. She gave him his desired son, Edward VI, and died twelve days later. The process of Protestantization slowed, but gradually an increasing number of middle and upper class Englishman began to adopt Protestant views. In the </span><span class="style2">Ten Articles</span><span class="style1"> (1536) Henry made his greatest concessions to Protestantism. Between 1536 and 1539 Henry VIII dissolved the wealthy Roman Catholic monasteries and confiscated their property. Of significance was the publication of English Bibles beginning in 1535 (of these, the </span><span class="style2">Great </span><span class="style8"><a href="#" class="group">Bible</a></span><span class="style1"> of 1539 and 1540 was the masterpiece) and Thomas Cranmer's (the first Anglican Archbishop of Canterbury) </span><span class="style2">Book of Common Prayer</span><span class="style1"> of 1549. These publications in the vernacular had a profound effect on English life and belief. </span></text>
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<text><span class="style1">HE ENGLISH REFORMATION (Also see Renaissance Essay: </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">The English Reformation</a></span><span class="style1">)By far the most complex of the Reformed movements, the "Protestantization" of England developed over the better part of two centuries. The events spanned the dynasties of the English Tudor monarchs from </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Henry VII</a></span><span class="style1"> through </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Elizabeth I</a></span><span class="style1">, the Scottish Stuart monarchs from James VI (James I of England) through James II, or from 1509 to 1688. </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Henry VIII</a></span><span class="style1"> (r.1509-1547) precipitated the English Reformation by attempting to obtain a divorce from his first wife Catherine of Aragon, a Spanish Roman Catholic. Pope </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Clement VII</a></span><span class="style1"> (r.1523-1534) was not about to grant such a divorce and thus offend the Spanish monarch who was the strongest supporter of Roman Catholicism in Europe. Nonetheless, by adroit manipulation, use of his ministers of state, and through a pliable Parliament, Henry VIII was granted his divorce. Catherine and her daughter Mary (the future "Bloody" </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Mary I</a></span><span class="style1">) were exiled, Henry married Anne Boleyn and the break with Rome necessitated the establishment of a new Church in England. </span></text>
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<text><span class="style1">nox further wrote a </span><span class="style2">Book Of Common Order</span><span class="style1"> (Knox's Liturgy), which was adopted in 1564. The remainder of Knox's career as Scotland's reform leader involves the jealousy, intrigues, marriages and bizarre behavior of Mary Stuart, Queen of Scots (r.1561-1587) whom he opposed, challenged, and feared. (He issued "the first blast of the trumpet against the monstrous regiment of women," referring to the Catholic monarchs, Mary, Queen of Scots and "Bloody" Mary I.) She was deposed in 1567 and Knox preached the sermon at the coronation of her son, James VI (r.1603-1625 as James I of England), who was one year old. Knox died in 1572, his efforts largely responsible for the conversion of Scotland into a Protestant Presbyterian stronghold. Knox was succeeded by Andrew Melville (1545-1622) who established Reformed centers at the Universities of Glasgow and St. Andrews, and built the presbyterian system in Scotland, becoming its most able defender. (To this day the British monarch becomes a Presbyterian when she or he crosses Hadrian's Wall into Scotland.) By this time Scotland was once again involved in politics with England, but the Scottish Reformation was now fully established. The Scottish Covenanters would soon bring their fierce Calvinism to America. </span></text>
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<text><span class="style1">s he preached in Dundee, Ayr, Lothian and other parts of the Lowlands, he was accompanied by a young notary carrying a large sword. His name was John Knox. Wishart was arrested, tried, convicted and burned at the stake with "two bags of gunpowder around his neck." In 1546 Knox, with Wishart's supporters, fled to St. Andrews castle after murder of Cardinal Beaton. Knox was captured by the French and spent nineteen months as a galley slave. Freed in 1549, he returned to England and became a court chaplain under </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Edward VI</a></span><span class="style1"> (r.1547-1553). In 1554, after the accession of Catholic "Bloody" </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Mary I</a></span><span class="style1"> (r.1553-1558), he again fled, ending up in Geneva where he participated in the translation of the </span><span class="style2">Geneva Bible,</span><span class="style1"> the Bible of the Puritans. The political struggle between France and England continued with the Scottish nobility increasingly hostile to France. In this climate, Knox returned to Scotland in 1555 but stayed only six months. Between 1555 and 1559 the political situation in Scotland and England took many turns, but Knox returned to Scotland in May 1559. With English aid, the French were banished from Scotland, and the Scottish Parliament pushed through a confession of faith largely written by John Knox that was thoroughly Calvinistic. </span></text>
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<text><span class="style1">HE SCOTTISH REFORMATIONTotally separate from the English Reformation in the South, the Scottish Reformation has its own history. While John Knox (1513-1572) dominates this movement, there was considerable reforming activity before he appeared. Centered in the Lowlands and tied to political rivalries between France and England and the Stuart succession to the Scottish crown, the reforming effort was also fueled by Wycliffe's vernacular translation of the Bible, his Lollard movement, the teachings of Luther and finally the teachings of John Calvin. Persons of reforming persuasion were active in the 1520's and many were martyred. In the 1530's Scotsmen fled to Switzerland to escape persecution. When they returned they brought with them the Reformed teaching and Calvinism. Persecution continued in the 1540's, when George Wishart (c.1513-1546) emerged as the leader of the reforming effort. He had been to Switzerland, had translated the </span><span class="style2">Confession of Faith of the Churches of Switzerland</span><span class="style1"> (1542) and returned to Scotland in 1544. </span></text>
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<text>Two main forms of sectarian groups come from these early Anabaptists. The first consisted of groups that formed into communal societies. The best known of such groups are the Hutterites, still in existence, and named for Jacob Hutter (martyred in 1526). The second group consisted of small sects such as the Moravians, the Schwenkfelders, the followers of Menno Simons (c.1496-1561) in the Netherlands, called Mennonites, and many sects having the name Brethren such as the small denomination known as the Brethren in Christ. A later branch of the Swiss Brethren became followers of Jacob Amman (c.1645-c.1730), and are now known as the Amish. Many, but not all of these small sectarian groups adopted plain dress and other forms of austerity as well as pacifistic positions. Today, there are many branches of these sectarian groups, many of which came to America in the colonial period to settle in Pennsylvania where they prospered and from which they have moved on into all parts of the United States and Canada.</text>
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<text><span class="style1">his new church was named Anabaptist or "rebaptizers" by its opponents. Incorrect and intended to be prejudicial, the name has stuck as a description of this more radical movement. Its members simply called each other "brothers" and "sisters". The term "brothers" would appear later as "Brethren", the name by which many of these groups would later describe themselves. Initially, owing to some erratic, even bizarre behavior, the Anabaptists were condemned as heretics, actively persecuted and opposed both by </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Luther</a></span><span class="style1"> and by </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">John Calvin</a></span><span class="style1">. Today, these groups are referred to as the Swiss Brethren. They represent sectarian Protestantism and from them came the movements within Protestantism called "separatist" which later included the first Baptists in England and those "separatists" in England that founded the Congregational church. </span></text>
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<text>THE RADICAL OR LEFT-WING REFORMATIONSome felt that the Reformers had not gone far enough. Referred to as Anabaptists, they rejected infant baptism and all forms of the mass, they moved to what is now called adult believer baptism, i.e., baptism should come only after one is old enough to express personal faith. Three men, Thomas Munzer (c.1489-1525), Balthaser Hubmaier (1481-1528) and Conrad Grebel (c.1498-1526) translated theory into practice. In 1525 Hubmaier and Grebel conducted adult believer baptism by affusion (pouring) at a meeting in a private home. The following week evangelistic services were held near Zurich, and thirty-five were baptized. They conducted a simple celebration of the Lord's Supper (Holy Communion or the Eucharist) and founded a separated community (or what is called a "gathered" church), one made up of only professed and adult baptized believers. </text>
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<text><span class="style1">y 1555 Calvin was the uncontested dictator of Geneva. Though ostensibly democratic, in a presbyterian form of government the pastor does have an enormous influence in who gets chosen as an elder. Calvin just wasn't a very nice man! In fact, some wag defined Calvinism as "that awful, horrendous fear that someone, somewhere might be having a good time.") His published works include </span><span class="style2">The Institutes of the Christian Religion</span><span class="style1"> (1536-1559), which he revised at least four times, </span><span class="style2">Commentary on Romans</span><span class="style1"> (1539), and </span><span class="style2">Ecclesiastical Ordinances,</span><span class="style1"> a catechism and liturgy which had at its center congregational singing. Calvin's mantle passed to Theodore Beza (1519-1605), a man committed to the same ideals and beliefs. </span></text>
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<text><span class="style1">n summary, Calvin's influence may be seen in two major areas: 1) the Confessions by which men lived and for which men died: the </span><span class="style2">Heidelberg Confession</span><span class="style1"> (1562), the two </span><span class="style2">Helvetic Confessions</span><span class="style1"> (1536, 1566), the </span><span class="style2">Gallic</span><span class="style1"> (1559), </span><span class="style2">Scottish</span><span class="style1"> (1560) and </span><span class="style2">Belgic</span><span class="style1"> (1561) </span><span class="style2">Confessions,</span><span class="style1"> and the longest and most detailed, the </span><span class="style2">Westminster Confession</span><span class="style1"> (1647) in England. 2) the consistent themes that run through all of these confessions: God's awful and absolute sovereignty, human depravity, the doctrine of assurance (how one knows that he/she is among the elect), God's revealed law (the Bible as authoritative for faith and practice), a distinct bent toward the Old Testament and the desire for a reorganized society (i.e., a theocracy in which Calvin ruled Geneva with an authoritarianism that many a dictator could envy! Religious offences and even dancing and games were severely punished. Several of Calvin's opponents were executed, including </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Michael Servetus</a></span><span class="style1">. (When Servetus was condemned to be burned at the stake he supposedly said to his judges, "I will burn, but this is a mere incident. We shall continue or discussion in eternity.")</span></text>
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<text><span class="style1">alvin felt that he ought to come to the defense of his fellow believers, and in 1536, at the age of twenty-six, he published the first edition of his </span><span class="style2">Institutes of the Christian Religion,</span><span class="style1"> with an attached letter to the King of France presenting the Protestant position clearly, courteously and with dignity. Calvin was twenty-six years old. By 1559 the Institutes had grown to eighty chapters. From the first it was the most comprehensive statement of the Protestant position. Calvin's views on election and predestination, so often identified as Calvinism, were influenced by the work of </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Luther</a></span><span class="style1"> and of </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Martin Bucer</a></span><span class="style1"> (1491-1551). Calvin's great gift was in systematizing and clarifying commonly held beliefs of contemporary Protestants. Calvin also established the central concept of the sovereignty of God as the foundation of the Reformed tradition. God is all-powerful, all-good, all-knowing and distant from mankind; yet through faith in </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Jesus Christ</a></span><span class="style1">, salvation may be gained through God's grace. Calvin objected to the Catholic claim of salvation by sacraments and the claim of the "antinomians" that faith in Christ permitted any behavior or practice (no matter how vile or unChristian). </span></text>
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<text><span class="style1">riends introduced him to </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">humanist</a></span><span class="style1"> thought. He then went to the universities of Orleans and Bourges for further training in law. He also began to study Greek and Hebrew and, when his father died, pursued these interests more fully, finally going to the new College of France, a humanist school. There he wrote and published his first work, </span><span class="style2">Commentary on Seneca's Treatise on Clemency</span><span class="style1"> (1532), in which there is no indication of an interest in religion. Calvin and his circle of friends and teachers read Luther's works and at least two of the circle left the Catholic church. One, Marguerite d'Angouleme, sister of the king of France and later Queen of Navarre, became an avowed Protestant. Sometime in 1534, Calvin had what he called a "sudden conversion", an event about which he later said virtually nothing. After this, his interest turned to religion. He decided to leave France, arriving in Basel in January 1535. Meanwhile, King Francis I of France (r.1515-1547) had begun to persecute Protestants. </span></text>
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<text>Farel, said to have been tall, red-headed and fearless, was formidable. He is too often neglected as one of the most influential persons related to the Swiss Reformation and to the establishment of the Reformed tradition in French Switzerland. His conquest of Geneva for Protestantism is of particular significance, for it was to this city that a young Frenchman, a friend of Farel, came to reside shortly after it became Protestant. His name was John Calvin. Born in Noyon, a city of Picardy northeast of Paris, Calvin's father was a self-made man who held prominent positions and friendships with noble families in his region. His early training was from funds received from ecclesiastical posts, and he entered the University of Paris in 1523. There he was trained in Latin, Aristotelian philosophy, nominalist logic and theology. </text>
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<text><span class="style1">wingli's model for the church soon spread into Germany along the Rhine and then to France where Farel and Calvin were attracted to this new form of worship. The simplified liturgy assumed a name, the Reformed tradition, and Farel became its chief proponent and spokesman. He was a fiery preacher with a stentorian voice, almost the stereotypical model for the later revivalist preacher. Farel, having converted to Protestantism in 1521, began his preaching career in Meaux, in France, was expelled, and in 1524 was preaching in Basel from which he was again expelled. Between 1526 and 1536, Farel and his associates stormed parts of Switzerland from Bern to Geneva; they successfully persuaded a large segment of the </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Waldensians</a></span><span class="style1"> (Italian Protestants) to adopt the Reformed tradition. There were stormy victories, often including temporary setbacks, expulsions and persecutions. But by 1536 Geneva was a Protestant city.</span></text>
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<text><span class="style1">wingli, whose "reformed Protestants" separated from the Lutherans, initiated in Zurich an entirely new type of service at the level of the local church. By 1525 he virtually eliminated the Catholic Latin Mass, liturgy and sacramental system and replaced them with a German service (in an undecorated hall) centered in the sermon and responsive readings and a revamped eucharist, both in form and meaning. Zwingli's </span><span class="style2">Commentary on True and False Religion</span><span class="style1"> (1525) and </span><span class="style2">An Exposition of the Faith</span><span class="style1"> (1531) were highly influential. (In a meeting at Marburg in 1529, Zwingli argued with Luther about the Real Presence of Christ in the eucharist (i.e., Mass or Holy Communion. The break led to a permanent division between the Swiss and German strands of Protestantism.) Zwingli's Protestant communion, with the minister facing the congregation across an ordinary table and its view of the elements of bread and wine as a memorial of the death and resurrection of Jesus and having no substantive meaning in themselves, was introduced in 1525. When the Catholic Forest cantons attacked Zurich in 1531, Zwingli was killed in the battle.</span></text>
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<text><span class="style1">uther's works include: </span><span class="style2">The Ninety-five Theses</span><span class="style1"> (1517); </span><span class="style2">On Good Works</span><span class="style1"> (1520); </span><span class="style2">To the Christian Nobility of the German Nation</span><span class="style1"> (1520); </span><span class="style2">A Prelude on the Babylonian Captivity of the Church</span><span class="style1"> (1520); </span><span class="style2">The Freedom of the Christian</span><span class="style1"> (1520); </span><span class="style2">Formula of the Mass</span><span class="style1"> (1523); </span><span class="style2">On the Bondage of the Will</span><span class="style1"> (1525); </span><span class="style2">Shorter Catechism</span><span class="style1"> (1529); </span><span class="style2">Greater Catechism</span><span class="style1"> (1529); </span><span class="style2">On Councils and Churches</span><span class="style1"> (1539); and his monumental translation of the </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Bible</a></span><span class="style1"> completed in 1534.THE SWISS REFORMATIONA more complete break from the Roman Catholic Church took place in Switzerland. The key actors were Ulrich Zwingli (1484-1531), Guillaume Farel (1489-1565) and </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">John Calvin</a></span><span class="style1"> (1509-1564). Zwingli, ordained a priest in 1506, became the first theologian of the Reformed (vs. Lutheran) tradition. His preaching against purgatory, clerical celibacy, </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">monasticism</a></span><span class="style1">, transubstantiation and other Catholic dogma and practices helped establish the Reformation in German Switzerland between 1522 and 1525. </span></text>
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<text><span class="style1">hough he never intended to found a new church, the Lutheran Church was born almost spontaneously and the princes of Germany soon joined in this effort. Luther's </span><span class="style2">Shorter Catechism</span><span class="style1"> (1529) and the </span><span class="style2">Augsburg Confession</span><span class="style1"> (1530) were the basic documents in the formation of the new church. His break from Rome was final, dramatic and complete. When he married a former nun, Catherine von Bora, and had several children, he dramatized once and for all that he was carrying out his convictions.Socially and politically conservative, Luther did not support the "Peasant's Revolt" of 1524 -1525 which gained him further support from the German princes. In turn, this led to the acceptance of Lutheranism in the north and east of Germany, thus becoming virtually a state church in those areas. Sweden, Denmark and its dependency Norway also embraced Lutheranism, partly for political reasons, but nonetheless establishing Lutheranism firmly as state churches outside of Germany. </span></text>
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<text><span class="style1">uther was asked to recant of his views at the Diet (i.e., assembly) of Worms before the Holy Roman Emperor </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Charles V</a></span><span class="style1">. After pondering overnight, Luther appeared and gave his famous response: "Your Imperial Majesty and Your Lordships demand a simple answer. Here it is, plain and unvarnished. Unless I am convicted of error by the testimony of Scripture or (since I put not trust in the unsupported authority of Pope or councils, since it is plain that they have erred and often contradicted themselves) by manifest reasoning I stand convicted by the Scriptures to which I have appealed, and my conscience is taken captive by God's word. I cannot and will not recant anything, for to act against our conscience is neither safe for us, nor open to us. HIER STEHE ICH. ICH KANN NICHT ANDERS. GOTT HELFF MIR. AMEN. (Here I stand. I can do no other. God help me. Amen.)" (</span><span class="style2">Documents Of The Christian Church,</span><span class="style1"> edited by Henry Bettenson, second edition, Oxford, 1970, p. 201) </span></text>
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<text><span class="style1">n short, it was possible to laymen to buy their way into heaven. Luther objected both to Tetzel's particular selling techniques and to the general principle behind indulgences. (Tetzel was a particularly aggressive salesman and exaggerated the benefits of indulgences.)Luther's initial attack lead him to challenge the church on other points. He attacked the Pope, the priesthood, church councils, tradition, the sacramental system (the seven sacraments as means of grace and salvation) and the central Roman Catholic doctrine of works. In 1520 Luther's views were officially condemned by a bull issued by Pope </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Leo X</a></span><span class="style1"> (r.1513-1521), a document which Luther contemptuously burned. He was summoned to Worms and excommunicated from the church as an "outlaw" in 1521. </span></text>
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<text><span class="style1">uther also began to present his views on what he called "the priesthood of each believer" (i.e., that each individual Christian has access to God directly without another intermediary or priest.) With the addition of his tenet of "Sola Scriptura", or dependence on the Scriptures alone, the central ideas of the Protestant Reformation were in place: salvation by faith alone, the priesthood of each believer and the Bible as the only source for faith and life. Luther was incensed by abuses within the church, in particular, the sale of indulgences, a religious institution with roots in the Crusades. Johann Tetzel, a </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Dominican</a></span><span class="style1"> monk, was raising money under papal authority to help rebuild St. Peter's in Rome. Papal doctrine held that there was a "treasury of merit," a sort of "storehouse" of surplus merit accumulated from </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Christ</a></span><span class="style1">, the Virgin Mary and the saints. Penance, and part or all of the punishment in purgatory (a place of punishment and preparation for heaven) could be remitted by an indulgence granted by a priest upon payment of an "offering." </span></text>
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<text><span class="style1">he date was 31 October 1517, observed ever since as </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Reformation Day</a></span><span class="style1"> by Protestants. Prior to the posting of his theses for formal disputation, Luther had undergone intense personal struggles over his own attempts to attain assurance of God's grace. He called this struggle his "Anfechtungen," literally "personal struggle, or war." Advised to study the </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Bible</a></span><span class="style1"> and become a teacher of the Bible, Luther devoted himself to this task after having become an Augustinian monk. As a monk, he pursued good works, monastic discipline, a pilgrimage to Rome and other traditional "means of grace" offered to him by the church to find the internal peace that he lacked. While preparing lectures on the Epistle to the Romans in the New Testament and other epistles of </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">St. Paul</a></span><span class="style1">, and through reading </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">St. Augustine</a></span><span class="style1">, Luther had a profound religious experience, a "conversion" similar to that described earlier by Augustine in his </span><span class="style2">Confessions.</span><span class="style1"> His struggle to "earn" salvation was over. He then began to teach what he believed to be the fundamental truth of Scripture: man can achieve salvation by faith alone. </span></text>
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<text><span class="style1">ach of these "reformations" has its own distinct and common themes whose shared features collectively gave rise to the name Protestant Reformation. The name "protestant" comes from the formal "protest" lodged at the Diet (i.e., assembly) of Spires in 1529 by a group of German princes professing Lutheran beliefs. The sixth or Catholic Reformation was not so much a counter movement as a belated attempt to implement previously rejected reforms and regain areas of Europe lost to the Protestants. THE LUTHERAN REFORMATION (Also see Essay: </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">The German Reformation</a></span><span class="style1">)The Protestant Reformation is said to have begun with the posting of the Ninety-five Theses on the door of the Castle church in the university town of Wittenberg where </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Martin Luther</a></span><span class="style1"> (1483-1546) was professor of divinity. </span></text>
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<text>The term Reformation is actually descriptive of some six "reformations" (five of them Protestant) that took place over parts of two centuries on the European mainland and in England and Scotland. They are: 1) the Lutheran Reformation 2) the Swiss, or Calvinist Reformation 3) the Scottish Reformation 4) the Radical or Left-Wing Reformation 5) the English Reformation 6) the Catholic, or Counter Reformation</text>
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<text><span class="style1">ndeed, the combination of a materially acquisitive, yet spiritually bankrupt church in an age of heightened religious awareness explains why the Protestant Reformation occurred in the 16th century. "Reformed theology" proved remarkably popular. Within fifty years almost 40% of Europe's population observed some form of this new theology. The successful attempts at reform that were undertaken were often local, as in Spain, or unsuccessful, as in the extreme efforts of the ascetic, visionary </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Dominican</a></span><span class="style1"> monk, </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Savonarola</a></span><span class="style1"> in Florence. Uncompromising and given to violence, he fell victim to his own zeal and intemperance. After being excommunicated by Pope </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Alexander VI</a></span><span class="style1">, he was tried for heresy, hanged and burned by an irate mob in 1498. </span></text>
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<text><span class="style1">HE REFORMATIONThere is a direct link between the Renaissance and the Reformation in that the Roman Catholic Church of the Renaissance and its popes were often the subject of attack by contemporary thinkers. As the Renaissance spread from Italy to France, England, Spain, the Netherlands, Germany and Poland, the "new learning" touched off pressure for reform of the Roman Catholic Church. In the past, the Church had adapted its thinking and practices to adjust to reform movements. By the fifteenth century however, the Church had grown complacent. The need for reform was evident, yet the church failed to undertake such reform from within. For the most part, the clergy were lax, undereducated and underqualified defenders of decadent </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">scholasticism</a></span><span class="style1">. While the popes did build the Sistine Chapel and </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">St. Peter's</a></span><span class="style1"> and establish the Vatican Library, they were often corrupt men of the world rather than spiritual leaders, often gaining office through their political or familial connections.</span></text>
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<text><span class="style1">he change from the medieval to the modern world of the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries was a period of transition in both philosophy and theology and there was a growing sense that they were two different areas not necessarily dependent on each other. It must be noted that philosophy was not one of the major interests of the humanists. They were more interested in literature and literary styles than in philosophical issues. But for those philosophers who were at work, questions of human immortality, the nature of the intellect and areas of logic were central. The study of logic had deteriorated in the universities. Often accused of mere juggling with words, logic had become an end in itself, no longer related to life. Suggestions for reform were made and </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Peter Ramus</a></span><span class="style1"> attempted to simplify logic entirely and make it a practical means for obtaining truth.</span></text>
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<text>The juxtaposition of old and new was typical of the Renaissance. Classical studies dominated scholarly efforts and antiquity was often more cherished than traditional Christian values and ideas. Some scholars tried very hard to combine the two, citing ancient writers to support Christian ideas, and thus gain the most benefit from both sources. At the same time, other humanist scholars studied ancient writers without any attempt to "Christianize" them and thus the more secular spirit of the Renaissance emerges. Much Renaissance literature identifies with this secular spirit. The emphasis was upon man and his place in the universe. Scholars viewed the individual's feelings, opinions, experiences and surroundings as all-important. As they sought to revive and restate the philosophical doctrines of the ancient thinkers and schools, the humanists' writing was usually elegant, neat and clear.</text>
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<text><span class="style1">elf-confident, rich and powerful patrons in the Italian city-states both supported and shaped their work. The aristocracy provided a new model of what man should seek to become: self-reliant, individualistic, curious and knowledgeable about the physical world and committed to community and family. Not surprisingly, these aristocrats became enthusiastic supporters of this "new learning." This support broke the old Medieval mold. Many Medieval scholars (or "</span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">scholastics</a></span><span class="style1">") were clerics tied to a monastery or university. In contrast, the humanists were laymen who could be found in a wide range of settings: informal academies, secondary schools, print shops, etc. They worked as teachers, civil servants and independent writers. As scholars, the humanists studied the humane or liberal arts, their interests ranging into literature, history, logic, philosophy, theology, politics and ethics. They taught the children of the aristocracy and wrote in a wide variety of genres, including poetry, drama, history and moral treatises. They worked comfortably with Medieval Latin (the language of the academic world), but they also learned Greek and wrote in their own vernacular languages.</span></text>
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<text>During the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries, economic expansion (which helped fuel the Renaissance), the explosion of exploration and trade, the emergence of scientific thought and the erosion of the Church's prestige combined to produce an unprecedented secular outlook on man's place in the world -- an outlook commonly referred to as "humanism." In a narrow sense, Renaissance humanism led to a renewed interest in the art, architecture, literature and language of Greece and Rome. From a broader perspective, humanism developed a more generous view of the individual, his development and his place in the world. Intellectuals believed that man's nature, standing apart from God, raised the most important and interesting questions. As they shaped a new view of man's place in the world, humanist intellectuals occupied a privileged place in society. </text>
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<text><span class="style1">UMANISM (See Essays: </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Renaissance Overview</a></span><span class="style1"> and </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Navigators and Explorers</a></span><span class="style1">)The Renaissance was, in part, a cultural revival that began in the city-states of northern Italy and spread throughout Europe. Renewed interest in Greek and Roman letters and geographic discovery (both covered in the two essays cited above) were not the only areas where there were new and exciting things happening. Late medieval philosophy gave way to interest in the sciences and to empirical methodologies, observation and experimentation -- i.e., </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">the scientific method</a></span><span class="style1">. Instruments were invented to enhance such methods (e.g., the microscope, telescope, barometer, slide rule.) Mathematics and physics advanced as well. Geometry, calculus, logarithms and graphs facilitated the findings and research of </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Copernicus</a></span><span class="style1"> and </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Gilbert</a></span><span class="style1"> and, in the Baroque, </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Galileo</a></span><span class="style1">, </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Kepler</a></span><span class="style1"> and </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Newton</a></span><span class="style1">. Whole new concepts of the world and universe resulted and modern science was born. </span></text>
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<text><span class="style1">HOMAS MORLEY 1557-1602 served the court of </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Elizabeth I</a></span><span class="style1"> and was organist at St. Paul's Cathedral best known for his balletts -- part songs with fa-la-la </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">refrains</a></span><span class="style1">JOHN DOWLAND 1562-1626 lutenist to Elizabeth I, </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">James I</a></span><span class="style1"> and several noble households in England famous for his solo lute music and lute ayres (solo songs with lute accompaniment -- almost always strophic, i.e., having several stanzas) often melancholy texts -- his motto was "Semper Dowland, semper dolens" ("Ever Dowland, ever doleful")</span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Don Carlo Gesualdo</a></span><span class="style1"> (c.1560-1613), </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Giovanni Gabrieli</a></span><span class="style1"> (c.1555-1612) and </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Claudio Monteverdi</a></span><span class="style1"> (1567-1643) were "Mannerists" and are discussed in the Renaissance V Essay "</span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Mannerism</a></span><span class="style1">".</span></text>
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<text><span class="style1">ILLIAM BYRD 1543-1623 recognized as the greatest English Renaissance composer served the Chapel Royal of </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Elizabeth I</a></span><span class="style1"> and </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">James I</a></span><span class="style1"> like </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Josquin</a></span><span class="style1"> and </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Lassus</a></span><span class="style1">, he was extremely versatile his works include: 3 Masses (a3, a4, a5 - for three, four and five voices), Latin </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">motets</a></span><span class="style1">, Anglican Services, English </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">anthems</a></span><span class="style1">, madrigals, solo songs, keyboard works, viol consorts loved a rich, sensuous, full sound (popular in England since </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Dunstable</a></span><span class="style1"> and up through </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Holst</a></span><span class="style1"> in the 20th century) like Lassus and </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Victoria</a></span><span class="style1">, savored the dissonance more than </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Palestrina</a></span><span class="style1"></span></text>
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<text><span class="style1">IOVANNI PIERLUIGI DA PALESTRINA c.1525-1594 </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">served the Vatican all his life</a></span><span class="style1"> the first truly important Italian composer of the Renaissance (the great Italian patrons preferred to import northern musicians) best known for his 105 Masses famous for the "classical" Renaissance </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">polyphonic</a></span><span class="style1"> style and his fabulously careful treatment of dissonance (When students in conservatories today study 16th-century counterpoint [i.e., polyphonic writing] the style of Palestrina is the model used.)</span></text>
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<text><span class="style1">AN PIETERSZOON SWEELINCK 1562-1621 organist at a church in Amsterdam the last of the great </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Netherlandish</a></span><span class="style1"> polyphonists (a tradition that began with </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Dufay</a></span><span class="style1">) wrote the first important organ music (he had quite a reputation as an organ virtuoso) -- especially variations, echo fantasies and toccatasCLAUDE LE JEUNE 1528-1600 served the French court wrote chansons (with </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">refrains</a></span><span class="style1">) in musique mesuree to correspond with vers mesuree - i.e., the long notes, corresponding to the long or stressed syllables, have twice the value or length of the short notes</span></text>
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<text><span class="style1">IELMAN SUSATO c.1500-c.1561 composer, arranger, instrument dealer and music printer in Antwerp greatest instrumental composer of the Renaissance before </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">G. Gabrieli</a></span><span class="style1"> (how the Germans have always loved their brass!) first important arrangements, transcriptions and </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">consort music</a></span><span class="style1">CLEMENT JANEQUIN c.1485-c.1560 served the French court the first great French composer of the Renaissance created the homophonic (i.e., chordal) chanson - as opposed to the prevailing </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">polyphonic</a></span><span class="style1"> or imitative chanson created the program chanson (longer chansons that tell a story)</span></text>
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<text><span class="style1">ENRY VIII 1491-1523 the first monarch to write decent music (</span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Frederick the Great</a></span><span class="style1"> 1712-1786 was the only other one) </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Henry VIII </a></span><span class="style1">wrote in almost all genresADRIAN WILLAERT c.1490-1562 a Fleming who served St. Mark's in Venice wrote the first polychoral </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">motets</a></span><span class="style1"> (i.e., for two or more choirs)</span></text>
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<text><span class="style1">HOMAS TALLIS c.1505-1585 first great Tudor composer wrote sacred music (i.e., Latin </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">motets</a></span><span class="style1"> and English </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">anthems</a></span><span class="style1">) for </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Henry VIII</a></span><span class="style1">, </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Edward VI</a></span><span class="style1">, "Bloody" Mary and </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Elizabeth I</a></span><span class="style1"> -- he had to keep switching between Latin and English depending on the denominational persuasions (and they were very deeply held!) of the monarch of the moment used dissonance more daringly than any of his contemporariesWILLIAM CORNYSH 1465-1523 served the Tudor court wrote secular music -- esp. part songs -- songs for several voices as opposed to solo songs (and how Henry VIII loved a party!)</span></text>
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<text><span class="style1">OSQUIN DES PREZ c.1440-1521 served French, Flemish and Italian courts the first truly international composer, fusing his native northern Franco-Flemish style with the southern traits he learned in Italy tremendously versatile (a true "Renaissance man") equally adept at complex </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">polyphony</a></span><span class="style1"> and simple homophony (i.e., chordal style)</span></text>
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<text><span class="style1">UILLAME DUFAY c.1400-1474 the first of the great Franco-Flemish or </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Netherlandish</a></span><span class="style1"> composers a master of the Mass, his favorite genre -- wrote the first: Free Mass (i.e., no borrowed material) Cyclic Mass (i.e., the same borrowed material in each Mass section) Secular </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Cantus Firmus</a></span><span class="style1"> Mass (i.e., the borrowed material is heard in the tenor voice) Paraphrase Mass (i.e., paraphrasing the borrowed material in all voices took the new </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">triadic</a></span><span class="style1"> style to Italy, where he sang in the Vatican choir for 9 years</span></text>
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<text><span class="style1">SOME PROMINENT INNOVATIVE COMPOSERS OF THE RENAISSANCE (For a more complete listing see "Music" grid in each country)JOHN DUNSTABLE c.1383-1453 1st great English composer wrote the new sacred </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">motets</a></span><span class="style1"> (i.e., sacred works with a Latin text) brought the </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">triad</a></span><span class="style1"> to the continent from England -- he served the Duke of Bedford in his role as Regent of France for </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Henry VI</a></span><span class="style1"> (Henry VI built Eton and King's College, Cambridge) free, flowing, gentle rhythms with no Gothic complexities</span></text>
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<text> Surface patterning usually a gentle unobtrusive pulse with a smooth flow secular music was generally more patterned or accented sacred music was generally less patterned or accentedMELODY Idiom generally a vocal idiom or orientation Movement generally phrases in conjunct motion (i.e., stepwise motion rather than by leap) Range and tessitura fairly narrow range - the range is the melodic span from the lowest note to the highest a mid-range tessitura (neither exceptionally high or low) - the tessitura is that part of the range (low, middle or high) used most of the time</text>
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<text> Chord vocabulary consonance was the norm - there were rules in textbooks about the proper handling of dissonance Cadential action infrequent cadences (articulative points) relatively weak cadences, often with parts overlapping at the final cadence no great drive to the cadence as in later musicRHYTHM Tempo moderate tempi - secular music was generally faster, sacred music slower Meter usually irregular non-symmetrical meters -- not in our basically duple or triple meters</text>
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<text><span class="style1">ARMONY Tonality the triad (a chord built in 3rds, C-E-G, D-F-A, etc.) </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">becomes the norm</a></span><span class="style1"> for the first time modal - in modes or "scales" other than our current major and minor modes Dorian, Phrygian, Lydian, Mixolydian, Aeolian (= our minor mode) and Ionian (= our major mode) Texture mainly polyphonic - i.e., two or more lines of music imitating each other pervading imitation was an important unifying device Italian music tended to be more homophonic - i.e., in a simpler chordal treble- dominated style we associate with hymns, folk songs and patriotic songs</span></text>
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<text>SONORITY Instrumentation generally small ensembles an essentially vocal style, often a cappella (i.e., no instrumental accompaniment) boys and men in sacred music (women did not sing in the church until the 18th Century) - only the collegiate and cathedral choirs in England have kept strictly to this tradition in the 20th Century ad hoc instrumentation (i.e., not specified) no modern instruments used - the main Renaissance instruments were cornetts, sackbuts, shawms, recorders, krummhorns, viols, lutes, harpsichords, virginals and organs Dynamics moderate range of dynamics, no great contrasts</text>
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<text>GENRE - SECULAR INSTRUMENTAL Consort music - music for a group of instruments Suites (dance music), Ricercari, Canzoni, Fantasias, Transcriptions, Arrangements Solo music (for keyboard or lute) Suites (dance music), Preludes, Toccatas, Fantasias, Variations, Ricercari, Canzoni, Transcriptions, Arrangements, Program pieces (pieces with fanciful titles e.g., "The Bee")FORM text-determined forms - e.g., refrain schemes of poetic texts, subdivisions of the Mass text, etc. dictate the large structural articulations in the music pervading imitation is the other important unifying principle</text>
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<text><span class="style1">ENRE - SECULAR VOCAL Part Song - a song for a group of people (as opposed to a solo song) Chanson (French) Canzona, Frottola and Madrigal (Italian) Villancico and Romance (Spanish) Lied (German) Part song, Ballett-with fa-la-la </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">refrains</a></span><span class="style1">, and Madrigal (English) Solo song with instrumental accompaniment Lute ayre - a solo song with lute accompaniment (English)</span></text>
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<text><span class="style1">Sacred Vocal Genres, continued) Motet - from the Renaissance on the motet would be a sacred work, usually sung to a Latin Biblical text Polychoral motet - a motet for two or more choirs, often with brass accompaniment Anthem - a motet in English Hymn - a work in a simpler, more treble-dominated style than a motet </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Chorale</a></span><span class="style1"> - a German hymn Carol - a sacred or secular piece with a </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">refrain</a></span><span class="style1">, popular only in 15th-century England</span></text>
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<text><span class="style1">he first great continental composer to adopt this new English style was </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Guillame Dufay</a></span><span class="style1"> (c.1400-1474) who served the court of </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Philip the Good</a></span><span class="style1">, the Valois Duke of Burgundy. We know that Dufay visited Italy (singing in the papal choir at </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">St. Peter's</a></span><span class="style1"> from 1428 to 1437) and took the new style with him. Thus the triad moved quickly from the north to the south of Europe.GENRE - SACRED VOCAL Mass - polyphonic (i.e., more than one line or voice of music) settings of the Mass became very popular in the Renaissance (for </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">the first polyphonic Mass</a></span><span class="style1"> see Medieval VI General Comments on music) Requiem Mass - the polyphonic Requiem Mass (a Mass for the dead) was new to the Renaissance</span></text>
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<text><span class="style1">s perspective was the most obvious distinguishing feature of Renaissance art, so the triad was to music, and because of the importance of that chord built in 3rds (e.g., C-E-G, F-A-C etc.) Renaissance music begins in the north, not in Florence.The 14th century </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Worcester Fragments</a></span><span class="style1"> (from Worcester Cathedral in England) made the first systematic use of the triad, but it was the Englishman </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">John Dunstable</a></span><span class="style1"> (c.1385-1453) who, in the service of the Duke of Bedford (regent in France for </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Henry VI</a></span><span class="style1"> of England), brought the triad to the continent. </span></text>
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<text><span class="style4">artolomaus Spranger</span><span class="style1"> (1546-1611) A Flemish </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Mannerist</a></span><span class="style1"> painter who served Pope Pius V and Cardinal Farnese in Rome. He admired </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Parmigiano</a></span><span class="style1"> and </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Correggio</a></span><span class="style1"> for their voluptuousness and was responsible for spreading the Mannerist style in Central Europe where he was appointed to the courts of </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Maximilian II</a></span><span class="style1"> in Vienna and Rudolf II in Prague. His two best paintings were done on copper: </span><span class="style2">Vulcan and Maia</span><span class="style1"> and </span><span class="style8"><a href="#" class="group">Hercules</a></span><span class="style2"> and Omphale</span><span class="style1"> (c.1590). The slender figures exemplify Mannerist proportions and affected poses. His drawings are notable.</span></text>
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<text><span class="style4">an Bruegel </span><span class="style1"> (1568-1625)Called "Velvet" Bruegel, he was the second son of </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Pieter Bruegel</a></span><span class="style1"> and was raised by his grandmother, Marie Bessemers, after his father died. Marie Bessemers may have given Jan his early training using sensitive, subtle colors, warranting the nickname "Velvet." He travelled to Italy where Cardinal Boromeo became his patron. He was a friend and assistant to </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Rubens</a></span><span class="style1">, who was guardian of his two children. He collaborated on works with Rubens (</span><span class="style2">Virgin with a Garland</span><span class="style1"> ) and other painters. Bruegel was an excellent flower and still life painter; e.g., </span><span class="style2">Large Bouquet</span><span class="style1"> and </span><span class="style2">Bowl with Jewels.</span><span class="style1"> His Flemish masterpieces are his numerous idyllic landscapes. His trademark was a figure of a goddess dressed in gossamer appearing in each of his landscapes. Jan's palette was beautiful in the sensitive Flemish manner, his specialty being blues. </span></text>
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<text><span class="style1">is most notable work is Fort Belvedere overlooking Florence from a hill, which established him as the first of a line of Italian military engineers who built fortifications all over Europe.</span><span class="style4">Bartolommeo Ammannati</span><span class="style1"> (1511-1592) A Florentine architect and sculptor who was trained by </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Jacopo Sansovino</a></span><span class="style1"> in Venice. He worked in several Italian cities and assisted in the building of Pope Julius's Palace in Rome, Villa Giulia, with </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Vasari</a></span><span class="style1"> and da Vignola. He worked on the Pitti Palace in Florence for Grand Duke Cosimo I, where he enlarged the courtyard. The all-over rustication of the 16th-century elements is startling. The drums are enlarged and rounded like truck tires (1558-1570). Also in Florence, he produced his masterpiece, the Ponte S. Trinita on the Arno River (1567-1569), the staircase (after Michelangelo's plans) at the Laurentian Library and </span><span class="style2">The Fountain of Neptune.</span><span class="style1"> In Rome, his works include the Negretti and Rispoli palaces and the Collegio Romano (College of the </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Jesuits</a></span><span class="style1">) 1583-1585. </span></text>
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<text><span class="style4">ederico Zuccaro </span><span class="style1">(c.1540-1609) An Italian </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Mannerist</a></span><span class="style1"> painter who belonged to the last generation of Mannerists in Rome. Their work foreshadowed the Baroque style of the 17th century. With his brother </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Taddeo</a></span><span class="style1">, he painted frescoes in the Vatican's Sala dei Palafrenieri. After Taddeo died, Federico became a decorator. He worked at the Ducale Palace in Venice and in the Sala del Maggior Consiglio, painting Barbarossa and Alexander III in 1582. He completed </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Vasari</a></span><span class="style1">'s frescoes in the cathedral of S. Maria del Fiore, Florence and then travelled to France, England and Spain where he enjoyed much success. He wrote a treatise on Mannerist style and maintained an academy in his house in Rome, Palazzo Zuccaro (1593). </span><span class="style4">Bernardo Buontalenti</span><span class="style1"> (c.1536-1608) A Florentine architect, painter and decorator whose style was based on </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Michelangelo</a></span><span class="style1">, but with less flair. The ornamental sculpture on his buildings is less extravagant. His commissions included the villa of the Grand Duke Francesco de Medici near Florence and the Duke's town house, Casino di S.Marco. </span></text>
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<text><span class="style1">he most famous of his Mannerist compositions, showing his amazing facility with aerial movement, is </span><span class="style2">The Rape of the Sabine Women.</span><span class="style1"> The subject matter departs from Mannerism, but the tendency is towards the action contained in a spiral. The dynamic quality is Michelangelesque and one is compelled to walk around the piece to see its movement from all angles. The amazing quality continues further when one learns that it was carved from a single piece of marble. Many of his original working models still exist, including those for the </span><span class="style2">Rape of the Sabines.</span><span class="style1"> At the end of the 16th century he produced an equestrian statue of </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Cosimo I</a></span><span class="style1">, which led to other commissions in the 1600s, including </span><span class="style2">Ferdinando I de'Medici</span><span class="style1"> (1601-1608), </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Henry IV</a></span><span class="style1"> ordered by Marie de'Medici for the Pont Neuf in Paris (1604) and </span><span class="style2">Philip III of Spain</span><span class="style1"> (1606). </span></text>
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<text><span class="style4">iambologna (Giovanni Bologna)</span><span class="style1"> (c.1529-1608) An Italian </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Mannerist</a></span><span class="style1"> sculptor, Giambologna was the most important sculptor in Italy after </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Michelangelo</a></span><span class="style1">. He is the transitional link between Michelangelo and the Baroque sculptor </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Bernini</a></span><span class="style1">. A Netherlander by birth, he worked in France, where he became known as Jean du Boulogne. He was trained in the atelier at Mons by Jacques du Broeucq and intended to return to Flanders after studying in Rome. But he came under the influence of Michelangelo, stopped in Florence and never left for the duration of his career as a sculptor. His first work of note was the</span><span class="style2"> Fountain of Neptune in Bologna, </span><span class="style1"> commissioned by Pope </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Pius IV</a></span><span class="style1">. He was known for his renderings of the god </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Mercury</a></span><span class="style1">. A famous Mercury was given to Emperor </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Maximilian II</a></span><span class="style1"> of Germany (1565), and the dynamic </span><span class="style2">Medici Mercury</span><span class="style1"> of 1580 depicted the god in flight. Giambologna's religious works included the </span><span class="style2">Altar of Liberty</span><span class="style1"> at Lucca Cathedral and bronze reliefs for the Grimaldi Chapel in Genoa and the Salviati Chapel at S.Marco in Florence. </span></text>
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<text><span class="style4">iacomo della Porta</span><span class="style1"> (1540-1602) Della Porta dominated the Roman architectural scene during the last 25 years of the 16th century. Pope Sixtus VI was redesigning the city of Rome, so della Porta, Giacomo da Vignola's pupil, saw a great deal of action. The Master died in 1573, so della Porta, an energetic go-getter, took over the unfinished projects. The dome and facade of Il Gesu took precedence. Two other della Porta building facades are Trinita dei Monti (1579) and S. Luigi San Francesci (1589). The modification and elongation of Michelangelo's dome at </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">St. Peter's</a></span><span class="style1"> was a completion project that della Porta undertook after Michelangelo's death. Two designs also modified from Michelangelo's original plans were the Piazza del Campodoglio (1578) and the Palazzo del Senatore (1573-1598). He used devices made famous by </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Michelangelo</a></span><span class="style1"> and took a step in the direction of Baroque architecture. </span></text>
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<text><span class="style1">alladio was also interested in theater architecture. He had success with several temporary wooden theaters which led to the Teatro Olimpico in Venice, designed after a Roman model. The outstanding feature of the theater was its permanent set, built by one of Palladio's students after his designs. It was designed for a production of </span><span class="style2">Oedipus Rex</span><span class="style1"> and included the stage wall as a facade of a palace. The facade opens through three arcades onto streets whose apparent depth is considered extended by the device of 'accelerated' perspective — a treatment that makes the actors seem to grow as they withdraw from the stage. The architect's work for lay clients is seen on the Venetian mainland, but most of his church architecture is in Venice proper. The church of San Georgio Maggiore, across from the Piazza San Marco, has a tall Classical porch on top of a low, broad one, introducing the illusion of three-dimensional depth. The interior of the church is bright and the wall articulations are highlighted beautifully by the intense Venetian sun. His </span><span class="style2">Four Books of Architecture</span><span class="style1"> were used as a canon for the architects immediately following Palladio; they were translated into English in 1738. Palladianism influenced such English architects as </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Inigo Jones</a></span><span class="style1">, </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">James Paine</a></span><span class="style1">, </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">William Kent</a></span><span class="style1"> and, to some extent, </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Robert Adam</a></span><span class="style1">. </span></text>
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<text><span class="style1">alladio familiarized himself with the work of </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Vitruvius</a></span><span class="style1"> and was influenced by </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Bramante</a></span><span class="style1"> and </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Michelangelo</a></span><span class="style1">. He remained true to antiquity in his heavy references to Classic devices. Because Palladio worked for the nobility, he designed many palazzos, or town palaces in Venice and villas, or country houses, on the Venetian mainland. One of the famous villas is the Villa Rotunda (also known as Villa Capra) near Vicenza. Here, Palladio built a country house for a monsignore who used it for entertaining and social events. There were no wings or secondary buildings on the villa. It had four identical, Ionic porticos, each facing in a different direction, for aesthetic viewing of the landscape. The domed hall is in the center of the building creating an academic symmetry. The fresco paintings inside the villa were done by </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Veronese</a></span><span class="style1"> and his disciples.</span></text>
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<text><span class="style1">t is said that the last two decades of his career were spent arguing with sculptor Bartolomeo Bandinelli and writing his famous </span><span class="style2">Autobiography.</span><span class="style4">Andrea Palladio (Andrea di Pietro della Gondola) </span><span class="style1"> (1518- 1580) The chief architect in Venice under </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Sansovino</a></span><span class="style1">. After Sansovino's death, Palladio became the Chief Architect of the Venetian Republic. Trained as a stonemason and decorative sculptor, he turned to architecture at the late age of 30. The humanist poet Trissino gave him the name Palladio after the Greek goddess of wisdom, </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Pallas Athena</a></span><span class="style1">. Palladio studied ancient Roman buildings and became an expert on antiquity, military science, engineering and topography. He wrote </span><span class="style2">Four Books on Architecture</span><span class="style1"> which influenced architects after him, particularly in England and Colonial America. </span><span class="style2"></span></text>
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<text><span class="style4">envenuto Cellini </span><span class="style1"> (1500-1571) Florentine sculptor and metalworker, a true personality of the 16th century. His </span><span class="style2">Autobiography</span><span class="style1"> describes his being trapped in Rome during the sack of 1527. During the sack he took part in the defense of Rome and claims to have fired a shot that killed one of the Imperial officers, the constable of Bourbon. Returning to Rome in 1529, after a short stint in Mantua and Florence, he developed a new coinage for Pope </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Clement VII</a></span><span class="style1">, which made him famous. He was called to France by </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Francis I</a></span><span class="style1"> to work on </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Fontainebleau</a></span><span class="style1">, but was unhappy with Francis' patronage. Upon his return to Rome he was arrested for allegedly stealing jewels during the sack. The French ambassador interceded on his behalf and Cellini returned to France. Much of his early work was portraiture in the form of busts. His </span><span class="style2">Perseus and Medusa</span><span class="style1"> is the sculptural counterpart of Bronzino's painting (on the same subject), considered a </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Mannerist</a></span><span class="style1"> masterpiece on an elaborate pedestal. The articulated musculature shows </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Michelangelo</a></span><span class="style1">'s influence. </span></text>
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<text><span class="style1">e was a master of illusion, anticipating the Baroque with works such as the ceiling fresco in the Sala del Maggior Consiglio in the Ducale Palace. </span><span class="style2">The Triumph of Venice,</span><span class="style1"> in oval format, an allegorical representation of Venice between Justice and Peace. His huge mythological canvas, housed in the Metropolitan Museum in New York, is </span><span class="style2">Mars and </span><span class="style8"><a href="#" class="group">Venus</a></span><span class="style1"> (1576-1584), painted during the same period as the Ducale Palace commission. Veronese's contribution to Venetian Mannerism is his brilliance for "scenography", the all-encompassing scenes including sky, architecture and throngs of people rendered in perfect perspective with a pleasingly airy palette. He is also considered a proponent of Venetian Classicism. Some critics find him pretentious and superficial. Others credit him with being the mentor of </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Poussin</a></span><span class="style1">, </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Lorrain</a></span><span class="style1"> and an inspiration to </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Rubens</a></span><span class="style1">. </span></text>
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<text><span class="style1">eronese settled in Venice in 1553 and did not leave the city very often. His first commission was to paint the ceilings of the Ducale Palace including his famous </span><span class="style2">Juno Bestowing her Gifts on Venice. </span><span class="style1"> "Trompe l'oeil" (i.e., trick or fool the eye illusion) painting was a fascination for him and he was so good at it that he was commissioned to do a grand cycle on the</span><span class="style2"> Life of Esther</span><span class="style1"> (1556) and a </span><span class="style2">Life of St. Sebastian</span><span class="style1"> for the prior of the convent of San Sebastiano in Venice. In visiting Rome, the works of </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Michelangelo</a></span><span class="style1"> encouraged Veronese to continue in the </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Mannerist</a></span><span class="style1"> style. He collaborated with Titian's son on the </span><span class="style2">Sala del Maggior Consiglio</span><span class="style1"> (1562) in the Ducale Palace in Venice. Several famous works were done for religious buildings, including </span><span class="style2">The Feast in the House of Levi </span><span class="style1"> (1573), done for the </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Dominicans</a></span><span class="style1">. This particular painting is voluminous in its treatment of figures. There are dwarfs, clowns, and dogs in a Classic setting — a grande bouffe of a "Last Supper" (the intended title of the painting). The </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Inquisition</a></span><span class="style1"> advised Veronese to change the "company" of the Lord, but Veronese flatly refused, simply changing the title of the painting to make it less solemn. It is the symmetrical high Renaissance composition revived. His crowd scenes are remarkable in their scope. </span></text>
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<text><span class="style1">pain was one of the major powers of the day and in his portraits El Greco captures the faces of the swashbuckling conquistadores who brought Spain the New World and whose Armada fought Protestant England and Holland. A favorite portrait of a spiritually enlightened Spaniard is the portrait of</span><span class="style2"> Fray Felix Hortensio Paravicino.</span><span class="style1"> El Greco's most memorable and famous portrait is his </span><span class="style2">Cardinal Nino de Guevara</span><span class="style1"> (c.1598-1600). Toward the end of his life El Greco was impoverished and compelled to accept commissions beyond his strength. His only landscape, </span><span class="style8"><a href="#" class="group">The View of Toledo</a></span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group"> </a></span><span class="style1"> (1608) is in the collection of the Metropolitan Museum in N.Y. </span><span class="style4">Paolo Veronese (Paolo Caliari)</span><span class="style1"> (1528- 1588) Italian painter and decorator known for his command of scenes teeming with people within architectural settings. He was the master of splendid pageantry and satisfied a wealthy patronage with enormous canvasses, sometimes twenty to thirty feet long. His palette was bright and he had a fondness for transparent tones. </span></text>
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<text><span class="style1"> famous commission toward the end of El Greco's career brings us one of his most commanding paintings, </span><span class="style2">The Burial of Count Orgaz. </span><span class="style1"> The sense of movement and supernatural light which delineate the the realistic portion of the canvas and the heavenly portion. The heavenly forms are interpreted in mysterious light with swirling clouds. The commission came in 1596 for the church of S. Tome in Toledo and the altarpiece is still in situ. The legend was that the Count had been honored at his death with mysterious obsequies; </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">St. Stephen</a></span><span class="style1"> and </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">St. Augustine</a></span><span class="style1"> had come down from heaven to bury him. This is the lower portion of the canvas; the upper portion is the strange interpretation of the Count's ascent to heaven. El Greco coveted the patronage of Phillip II of Spain. For Phillip he painted the </span><span class="style2">Adoration of the Name of </span><span class="style8"><a href="#" class="group">Jesus</a></span><span class="style1"> (1580), known as </span><span class="style2">The Dream of Phillip II. The Martyrdom of St. Maurice</span><span class="style1"> was scorned by the King and never placed in the chapel for which it was produced. Having displeased the King, El Greco moved back to Toledo where he met with success in this active, intellectual center of Spain. Elongated figures were his trademark with unreal sources of undefined light. His work suited certain types of commissions, such as altarpieces. </span></text>
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<text><span class="style2">he Modena Polyptych</span><span class="style1"> (1568-69), </span><span class="style2">Christ Healing the Blind Man</span><span class="style1"> (c. 1570) and </span><span class="style2">Christ Expelling the Merchants from the Temple</span><span class="style1"> (1576) show the devices he learned from Titian and Michelangelo. 1577 marks the year El Greco left for Toledo in Spain, where he spent the rest of his life. His art blends the Byzantine with Italian </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Mannerist</a></span><span class="style1"> sensibilities and has a sense of other-worldly movement and supernatural light. His first two important Spanish commissions were in Toledo: the altarpiece for the church of S. Domingo el Antiguo (including the paintings: </span><span class="style2">The Assumption of the Virgin, the Holy Face, St. John the Baptist, St. John the Evangelist, The Adoration of the Shepherds </span><span class="style1">and</span><span class="style2"> The Resurrection</span><span class="style1"> — the last six mentioned are in the original setting) and the </span><span class="style2">Espolio</span><span class="style1"> (Disrobing of Christ) for the Sacristy of Toledo Cathedral. Two panels from the commission for the S. Jose chapel in Toledo are in the possession of the National Gallery of Art in Washington, D.C., where they are beautifully preserved. They are </span><span class="style2">The Virgin with St. Agnes</span><span class="style1"> and </span><span class="style2">St. Thecla and Saint Martin and the Beggar.</span><span class="style1"> </span></text>
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<text><span class="style1">nother painting with remarkable composition is </span><span class="style2">The Miracle of the Slave</span><span class="style1"> (1548), an early work which shows the dramatic elements of St. Mark intervening as a Christian slave is to be martyred. Tintoretto uses contrary and opposing motions. In </span><span class="style2">Finding the Body of Saint Mark</span><span class="style1"> the emotional impact of the composition is theatrical, foreshadowing the Baroque. St. Mark shows where his body should be buried. The figures present are visibly shocked. Tintoretto's portraiture is true to the Venetian tradition. He took the overflow of Titian's customers, and actually added a bit more flair to his subjects. He was ingenious at contrasting the faces of his sitters with their clothing and background. </span><span class="style4">El Greco (Dominikos Theotocopoulos)</span><span class="style1"> (1542-1614)El Greco was born in Crete but lived in Italy before settling in Spain. In Italy he was part of the Venetian circle of </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Titian</a></span><span class="style1">, Tintoretto and Bassano. In 1570 he went to Rome where, in two years, he absorbed a certain influence from </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Michelangelo</a></span><span class="style1"> that gave his work an avenue away from the Byzantine influence evident early on in his paintings. </span></text>
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<text><span class="style4">intoretto (Jacopo Robusti)</span><span class="style1"> (1518-1594) The leading representative of Venetian Mannerism, his father was a dyer, whereby he was called "Tintoretto." He trained with </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Veronese</a></span><span class="style1"> and others less well known. Even his early paintings showed a Venetian propensity for crowding elements of the same importance into the foreground of the canvas. His </span><span class="style2">Last Supper</span><span class="style1"> (1547) and </span><span class="style2">St. Mark Rescuing a Slave</span><span class="style1"> (1548) are examples. Later works develop into his hallmark style, the use of precise perspective to create emotional effects: </span><span class="style8"><a href="#" class="group">St. Augustine</a></span><span class="style2"> Healing the Plague-Stricken</span><span class="style1"> (1549). His mature </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Mannerist</a></span><span class="style1"> style is inventive; he masters the sinuous, elongated bodies, diagonal or oblique compositions and luminosity. Tintoretto's 23-year cycle (1564-1587) project in the Scuola di S. Rocco is the height of his imaginative sensibility. Selected masterpieces from this cycle are: </span><span class="style2">Christ Before Pilate,</span><span class="style1"> with the eerie white body of Christ; </span><span class="style2">Road to Calvary and Crucifixion,</span><span class="style1"> with the swirling crowds and the ominous light; </span><span class="style2">Ascension and Baptism of Christ</span><span class="style1"> where the protagonists are swathed in purple and orange garments. </span></text>
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<text><span class="style1">t is interesting to note that </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Venus</a></span><span class="style1">, the goddess of love and pleasure, so reviled and feared by the medieval Christians, is used side-by-side with the Madonnas of the Renaissance. In the 1530s to the mid-1540s, Titian worked on religious subjects and portraits, such as </span><span class="style2">Cardinal Bembo </span><span class="style1"> (c. 1542) in the collection of the National Gallery of Art in Washington, D.C., and </span><span class="style2">Pope Paul III </span><span class="style1"> (c.1543). Pope </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Paul III</a></span><span class="style1"> invited Titian to Rome. While at the Vatican, he painted Farnese family portraits, </span><span class="style2">Pope Paul III and his Grandsons</span><span class="style1"> (1546) and a mythical canvas, </span><span class="style2">Danae</span><span class="style1"> (1545). Titian's mature style grew freer. </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Charles V</a></span><span class="style1"> invited him to Augsburg to paint portraits: King Phillip of Spain, Johann Frederick, Elector of Saxony and Charles V himself. His late painting, </span><span class="style2">Christ Crowned with Thorns, </span><span class="style1"> is a scene of religious torment, monotone in color with ominous lighting. It seems to foreshadow </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Rembrandt</a></span><span class="style1"> in the 17th century. Titian died in Venice during an epidemic of the bubonic plague and he was buried in the church of the Frari. Titian will always be known as a supreme colorist, interested in the luminosity of color and tonality. </span></text>
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<text><span class="style1">etween 1519 and 1526 Titian painted the famous </span><span class="style2">Madonna of the Pesaro Family,</span><span class="style1"> a gift to the Church of Frari by the Bishop of Paphos in Cyprus. Jacopo Pesaro was the captain of the papal fleet who led a successful expedition during the Venetian-Turk War. The painting, notable for its asymmetry and steep diagonal composition, is characteristic of Titian. The off-center axis creates a dynamic composition for the high Renaissance. In 1530 Cardinal Ippolito de Medici invited Titian to Bologna to paint a portrait of Emperor </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Charles V</a></span><span class="style1">. Titian had an inimitable way of capturing a psychological reading of the head and hands. He was sought after all over Europe. He painted Phillip II of Spain and the </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Habsburgs</a></span><span class="style1">. In 1533 he was appointed court painter to the Holy Roman Empire. Portraits abounded, as well as his brilliant </span><span class="style8"><a href="#" class="group">Venus</a></span><span class="style2"> of Urbino </span><span class="style1"> (1538). Here we have a feminine nude, reclined on a couch in a balanced composition with a dark drape behind her head to the left, and a grouping in the far right corner, receding with a smaller landscape out the window. The Venetian palette of rich golds and reds is full-blown. </span></text>
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<text><span class="style4">itian (Tiziano Vecellio)</span><span class="style1"> (c.1485-1576) The most prodigious and prolific of all Venetian painters. When he was 9 or 10 years old Titian was taken to Venice as an apprentice to Sebastiano Zuccato who sent him to </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Gentile Bellini</a></span><span class="style1">, who sent him to </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Georgione</a></span><span class="style1">. He was a supreme colorist, father of the modern mode of painting on canvas in favor of wooden panels. In 1515 he painted his first "sacre conversazioni," the allegory </span><span class="style2">Sacred and Profane Love. </span><span class="style1">After the death of Bellini in 1516, Titian became the painter to the Venetian Republic, where he had a very successful shop. The commissions for religious buildings were numerous including </span><span class="style2">The Assumption of the Virgin</span><span class="style1"> for S. Maria Gloriosa, the </span><span class="style2">Virgin Appearing to Saint Francis, Saint Aloysius, and a Donor </span><span class="style1"> (1520) for the Church of San Francesco in Ancona, and the </span><span class="style2">Brescia Polyptych</span><span class="style1"> for SS. Nazaro e Celso in Brescia. </span></text>
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<text><span class="style4">ollaton Hall</span><span class="style1"> was designed and built by </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Robert Smythson</a></span><span class="style1">. Near Nottingham, it was built between 1580 and 1588. The design was derived from </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Longleat</a></span><span class="style1">, but has angle towers. The Great Hall is placed where a central court would be and is surrounded by reception rooms, so the hall block was elevated to let in light. The Great Chamber rises above the Hall like a tower in the center of the house. It creates a medieval effect, necessitating the angle towers.</span><span class="style4">Germaine Pilon </span><span class="style1"> (c.1535-1590) was a French sculptor who exhibited a combination of Italian Renaissance tendencies with Gothic traditions. With </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Jean Goujon</a></span><span class="style1">, he was the most famous French sculptor of the 16th century. His specialty was monumental tomb sculpture. With the Italian </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Primaticcio</a></span><span class="style1">, he worked on the </span><span class="style2">Monument to Henry II and Catherine de'Medici </span><span class="style1"> (1563-1570) in Paris at St. Denis which combined Gothic realism with </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Fontainebleau</a></span><span class="style1"> Mannerist style. His </span><span class="style2">Descent from the Cross</span><span class="style1"> is a bronze relief that shows off graceful, muscular figures in a new, emotional use of naturalism. It assimilates both the angularity of the Gothic and the prearranged quality of the Mannerists. </span></text>
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<text><span class="style1">here is an extensive use of glass, with large window-walls. Horizontality is established as a distinguishing feature of English architecture. Entablatures (part of a building, usually the facade, between the capitals of columns and the roof, or the upper story) of pilasters (flat rectangular, vertical member projecting from a wall of which it forms a part and usually having a base and a capital and often fluted) and the string course (horizontal molding or band in masonry, ornamental but usually reflecting interior structure) linking of the base that produces bands across the front of the building makes it typically English in flavor. </span><span class="style4">Hardwick Hall</span><span class="style1"> was possibly a Smythson project. Bess of Hardwick had it begun in 1590. Bess, a many-times-married lady, and an impassioned builder, had it miraculously completed by 1596. It is a variation on the Great Hall theme, an H-plan with the Great Hall at right angles to the front door. There were many glass windows, and the joke was "Hardwick Hall, more glass than wall!" The interiors contain some of the finest surviving Elizabethan decorative work. The Great Presence chamber has a colored plaster frieze.</span></text>
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<text><span class="style1">uring this period, Hilliard wrote his treatise: </span><span class="style2">The Arte of Limning.</span><span class="style1"> Aside from those of Queen Elizabeth, most of his portraits are of men. His best Jacobean (i.e., during the reign of James I) works are much more polished than his earlier works.</span><span class="style4">Burghley House</span><span class="style1">, Northamptonshire was built in 1556. It is an Elizabethan style "prodigy house," symmetrical, but more ornate than the others such as Longleat House. The Court is dated 1585, French in style, but the detail work is decidedly Flemish. </span><span class="style4">Longleat House</span><span class="style1"> was built by architect Sir John Thynne, who visited France. Longleat was one of the first Elizabethan"prodigy houses," one of the greatest achievements in English architecture. The mason on the job was </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Robert Smythson</a></span><span class="style1">. A fire ravaged the house in 1567 and a new model was made in 1568; the present house dates from 1572. Symmetry and restraint were two characteristics of this style. The plan is based on internal courts with more private rooms. </span></text>
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<text><span class="style4">obert Smythson</span><span class="style1"> (1536-1614) An English mason and architect, Smythson was the most important architect of the Elizabethan Age. He developed the Tudor style of architecture out of Italian and Flemish Renaissance forms within a Romantic "sham castle framework." He first worked as a mason at </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Longleat</a></span><span class="style1"> House, Wiltshire (1568-1575). His masterpiece is </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Wollaton Hall in</a></span><span class="style1"> Nottinghamshire (1580-1588), a symmetrical building with corner towers and a central hall. Smythson is believed to have assisted in the building design of </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Hardwick Hall</a></span><span class="style1">, Derbyshire (1590-1597 as well as many other Midlands houses. </span><span class="style4">Nicholas Hilliard</span><span class="style1"> (c.1549-1619)An English miniaturist, Hilliard was considered the greatest native-born painter of the Elizabethan age. He was the son of an Exeter goldsmith, appointed limner (i.e., a painter of miniature portraits) and goldsmith to </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Elizabeth I</a></span><span class="style1"> of England. He did many portraits of the Queen and </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">James I</a></span><span class="style1"> also used Hilliard as a court painter. </span></text>
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<text><span class="style4">rancesco Primaticcio</span><span class="style1"> (1504-1570) Primaticcio was a painter, designer, architect/sculptor and one of the leading </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Mannerists</a></span><span class="style1">. He worked at the Palace of </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Fontainebleau</a></span><span class="style1"> in France. A pupil of </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Giulio Romano</a></span><span class="style1">, Primaticcio worked with the Master on the decoration of the Palazzo del Te in Mantua. </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Francis I</a></span><span class="style1"> actually sent for Romano to work at Fontainebleau, but Primaticcio was sent instead. There he met </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Rosso Fiorentino</a></span><span class="style1">, who was working on the Grande Gallerie of Francis I. Primaticcio was assigned to the Queen's Chamber c.1535. On the death of Fiorentino, Primaticcio was put in charge of the buildings projects, where he served under three kings. He influenced French art in the style of the Italian Mannerists, with the elongated torsos, abrupt changes in scale and texture, crowded compositions of interlaced figures seeking the frame of a painting. None of Primaticcio's work at Fontainebleau survived. Stuccos from the bedchamber of the Duchesse d'Etampes remain, inspired by Ovid's </span><span class="style2">Metamorphosis,</span><span class="style1"> Homer's </span><span class="style2">Iliad,</span><span class="style1"> and the adventures of </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Hercules</a></span><span class="style1">, Ulysses and </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Alexander the Great</a></span><span class="style1">. Tapestries woven from his cartoons also remain.</span></text>
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<text><span class="style4">ichele Sanmicheli </span><span class="style1"> (1484-1559) A Veronese architect and Military Engineer for the Vatican Republic, he was born in to the building trade and was trained as a stonemason before going to Rome. Sanmicheli was an architect who worked on the facade of Orvieto Cathedral, where he designed and built the Petrucci Chapel in 1516 and made designs for its facade and campanile. He joined Sangallo as a fortifications expert for the Papal State. As Engineer for the Venetian Republic, where he settled after the sack of Rome in 1527, Sanmicheli built fortifications in Dalmatia (Yugoslavia), Corfu and Cypress. His Venetian palaces were grandiose Roman-style buildings. In Verona he designed the City Gates and three palaces: Palazzo Bevilacqua (c.1530), Palazzo Pompei (1529) and Palazzo Canossa (c.1537). His style is characterized by rusticated facades, with heavy light and dark contrasts. This </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Mannerist</a></span><span class="style1"> tendency involves rhythms in the architecture from the abundance of exterior ornament. Some of his church architecture and private commissions were fortress-like in appearance, recalling his work as a military engineer. S. Maria in Argano, Verona is an example. </span></text>
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<text><span class="style1">ansovino was a proponent of sculpture in architecture. His decoration for the </span><span class="style2">Loggetta</span><span class="style1"> (1537-1540), a portico placed at the base of the Campanile of San Marco to accommodate public meetings in bad weather, included an enormous amount of sculpture. Carving on the outside of the Libreria Vecchia and the sacristy doors and choir loft of the Cathedral of San Marco are also remarkable with their deep shadows and intense play of light and dark. Other sculptures used architecturally are </span><span class="style2">Mars and Neptune</span><span class="style1"> of the </span><span class="style2">Staircase of the Giants</span><span class="style1"> (1554) in the Doge's Palace and the famous </span><span class="style2">Madonna and Child</span><span class="style1"> (1534) at the Arsenal. </span><span class="style2">La Zecca, the Mint</span><span class="style1"> (1545), also at the Piazzetta San Marco, is another of Sansovino's remarkable achievements, with its three-story facade and heavy rustication. It was the repository for Venice's bullion reserves. Late in his career, Sansovino designed the Palazzo Delfino (1562) and the Oval Church at the Hospital for the Incurables, both in Venice. </span></text>
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<text><span class="style1">e went to Rome in 1505 where he came in contact with </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Giuliano da Sangallo</a></span><span class="style1"> and distinguished himself in the esteem of </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Bramante</a></span><span class="style1">. In Rome, he concentrated on sculpture, creating </span><span class="style2">Bacchus</span><span class="style1"> (c. 1514), </span><span class="style2">St. James the Major</span><span class="style1"> and the tombs of Cardinal Giovanni Michiel and Bishop Orso (both c. 1519). After the sack of Rome in 1527, Sansovino took up residency in Venice where he established himself as a major architect and sculptor. Cardinal Grimani appointed him building projects superintendent of the Republic of Venice in 1529. His architecture is used in the paintings of </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Titian</a></span><span class="style1"> and </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Veronese</a></span><span class="style1">. He established a standard style for Venetian houses which included the elegant facade seen in paintings of the day. In 1536 Sansovino began the project of the State Library for the protection of precious manuscripts given to Venice by </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Petrarch</a></span><span class="style1">. It is on the Canale San Marco in the Piazzetta de San Marco, the style imitating a Roman basilica with two orders of columns. The Library has been described as being the "richest and most ornate edifice since ancient times" by </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Palladio</a></span><span class="style1">. It reflects the architecture of the Gothic Doge's palace. </span></text>
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<text><span class="style4">iulio Romano</span><span class="style1"> (1499-1546) Romano was a brilliant young prodigy of 16 when he became </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Raphael</a></span><span class="style1">'s assistant in decorating the Vatican stanze (i.e., chambers). He spent most of his life in Rome, where he became a </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Mannerist</a></span><span class="style1">. After Raphael's death in 1520, Romano completed Raphael's unfinished frescoes and panel paintings. He went to Mantua under the patronage of Federico Gonzaga, and built and decorated Palazzo del Te, a summer palace and stud farm for the Gonzaga stables. In Palazzo del Te, Romano breaks with Renaissance tradition of adhering to Classical rules of order, stability and symmetry and creates architectural ambiguities and inconsistencies typical of the Mannerists. </span><span class="style4">Jacopo Sansovino (Jacopo Tatti)</span><span class="style1"> (1486-1570) He took the name of his Master Andrea Contucci da Monte Sansovino, who trained him as a sculptor. This would have made him Jacopo Tatti Contucci da Monte Sansovino, thus winning the land-speed record for having the longest name of the Italian Mannerists. </span></text>
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<text><span class="style1">iorentino was invited by </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Francis I</a></span><span class="style1"> to decorate the Grande Gallerie at the Palace at </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Fontainebleau</a></span><span class="style1">, helping to establish the </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Mannerist</a></span><span class="style1"> style in France through an elaborate series of paintings and stucco decorations. </span><span class="style4">Perino del Vaga</span><span class="style1"> (c.1500-1547) Playing a major role in the formation of a "maniera" (Mannerist) decorative style in Rome, he created a series of illusionistic prophets in the Pucci Chapel combining </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Michelangelo</a></span><span class="style1">'s power of expression with </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Raphael</a></span><span class="style1">'s grace ("grazia"). </span><span class="style4">Daniele da Volterra (Daniele Ricciarelli) </span><span class="style1"> (1509-1566) Da Volterra was an obscure painter who was in Rome at the time the </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Council of Trent</a></span><span class="style1"> forbade all nudes from appearing in religious paintings. His claim to fame, and his moniker "Il Braccatone," or "the breeches maker" came from his being the painter who fashioned the draperies on the private parts of the figures in Michelangelo's </span><span class="style2">Last Judgement.</span><span class="style1"> Da Volterra had been a student of Michelangelo's. </span></text>
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<text><span class="style4">osso Fiorentino (Giovanni Battista di Jacopo)</span><span class="style1"> (1494-1540)Fiorentino, born in Florence, was a painter and decorator and a primary exponent of Mannerism. One of his first frescoes was one begun by </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Andrea del Sarto</a></span><span class="style1">: </span><span class="style2">The Assumption of the Virgin</span><span class="style1"> (1517). Although the fresco is not completely in the Mannerist tradition, the facial expressions are a tangent from Renaissance austerity. The bizarre facial expressions are seen in two other paintings: </span><span class="style2">Madonna with Four Saints</span><span class="style1"> (1518) and </span><span class="style2">Madonna with Two Saints </span><span class="style1">(1521). The rebel quality of his paintings departs from the Renaissance tendencies and becomes Mannerist in its decentralization of composition, attention to drapery and elements becoming dispersed toward the frame. His </span><span class="style2">Deposition</span><span class="style1"> (1521) has an eeriness about it owing to the treatment of the light source. He treats the subject, according to Scripture, as a nighttime scene, lighted by the moon only. The landscape appears at the bottom of the picture and the background is a steely grey. The figures are stylized, again exhibiting unusual facial expressions and gestures. The obtuse light source produces angular shapes in the drapery. </span></text>
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<text><span class="style4">rancesco de'Rossi Salviati</span><span class="style1"> </span><span class="style4">(called Cecchino)</span><span class="style1"> (1510-1563) Salviati was a pupil of </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Andrea del Sarto</a></span><span class="style1"> and worked in his studio until 1529. He took the surname of Cardinal Salviati for whom he worked beginning in 1531. With the Cardinal, he moved to Rome where he became influenced by </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Mannerism</a></span><span class="style1">, in the styles of </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Michelangelo</a></span><span class="style1"> and</span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group"> Raphael</a></span><span class="style1">. Salviati imitated the elegance of </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Parmigiano</a></span><span class="style1"> and possessed a facile sense of design. He decorated a chapel in S. Maria dell'Anima (1541-1544) and in 1544 returned to Florence where he painted a cycle in the Salla dell'Udienza of the Palazzo Vecchio, illustrating the story of Camillus. Upon returning to Rome in 1555, he decorated rooms in the Palazzo Farnese and the Palazzo Sacchetti. Salviati illustrated a Mannerist sense of humor and loved to play with imagery in his frescoes. </span></text>
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<text><span class="style4">iovanni Savoldo </span><span class="style1"> (c.1480-1548)Born in Brescia, Savoldo spent most of his life in Venice and Milan. Much of his career is undocumented except for documents that indicate he belonged to the guild of Florentine painters for a while, that he worked in Tuscany and that he was protected by Duke Francesco II Sforza in Milan. It is recorded that he married a Dutch woman, which explains some of his northern influences, particularly those of </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Van Eyck</a></span><span class="style1">. His remaining paintings are strange in their moody, simplified style, often preoccupied with night light sources. He anticipates </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Caravaggio</a></span><span class="style1">. His portraits are often poetic -- one is in the collection of The National Gallery of Art in Washington, D.C.: </span><span class="style2">Portrait of a Knight</span><span class="style1"> (1510). Most of his subjects were religious, including a </span><span class="style2">Nativity</span><span class="style1"> (1527) that is in </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Hampton Court</a></span><span class="style1"> Palace in England. Savoldo is preoccupied with the effects of light, with its reflective properties and the tonal values elicited from different types of light sources. His </span><span class="style2">Adoration of the Shepherds</span><span class="style1"> (1540) shows Eyckian influence with a a nighttime effect silhouetting a shepherd in a window frame. He was actually a pioneer of night scenes and dusky landscapes. </span></text>
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<text><span class="style1">or Eleonora's chapel at the Palazzo, which he worked on until 1564, he created a Mannerist </span><span class="style2">Pieta</span><span class="style1"> and scenes from the Life of Moses. An absurd allegory (which he loved) titled </span><span class="style2">Exposure of Luxury, </span><span class="style1"> featuring </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Venus</a></span><span class="style1">, Cupid, Folly and Time, was ordered by </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Cosimo de Medici</a></span><span class="style1"> as a gift for Francis I of France for the Palace of </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Fontainebleau</a></span><span class="style1">. Both men enjoyed the painting despite the fact that their religion told them to condemn "Luxuria," or sensual indulgence. It was indeed a fickle time! The Mannerist principle of interlaced figures seeking the frame rather than the center of the picture is exemplified in the </span><span class="style2">Exposure of Luxury.</span><span class="style1"> The figures are entwined in all their porcelain-fleshed, sensual glory. The figures resemble marble rather than human skin that sweats and changes hue. The point of interest in Bronzino's work is his adept brushwork. He was indeed a perfectionist who could tickle a perfect facial expression out of his palette. A favorite portrait, showing the sophisticated grace of Mannerism, is Bronzino's </span><span class="style2">Portrait of a Young Man.</span><span class="style1"> Dressed in Spanish black (this is the century of Spanish etiquette) the young man appears intellectual and proud. The formality of Mannerism is taken to its heights in Bronzino.</span></text>
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<text><span class="style4">ronzino (Agnolo Torri) </span><span class="style1"> (1503-1572) Bronzino, born in Florence, was in fashion at the tail end of </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Mannerism</a></span><span class="style1"> when the </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Council of Trent</a></span><span class="style1"> forbade all nudes in religious painting. He was the official portraitist of the ducal court of Florence and belonged to the second generation of Tuscan Mannerism, whose technique was refined to the point of perfection. He owes most of his fine Tuscan drawing technique and color training to </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Jacopo da Pontormo</a></span><span class="style1">. Politically, he was expelled from Florence for a period of two years, between 1530 and 1532, and was in the service of Duke Guidobaldo II at this time in Urbino. When he returned to Florence he worked on commissions and completed a project for Eleonora of Toledo's chapel at the Palazzo Vecchio in Florence. Eleonora was so pleased with Bronzino's work that he rose quickly to the position of court painter of the ducal court of Florence. His portraiture brought him praise and fame. His </span><span class="style2">Cosimo de'Medici in Armor</span><span class="style1"> (1545), </span><span class="style2">Elenora of Toledo and her son Giovanni </span><span class="style1"> (c.1545) and </span><span class="style2">Bartolomeo and Lucretzia Panchiatici</span><span class="style1"> (c.1540) are examples of his perfection as a portraitist. </span></text>
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<text><span class="style4">armigiano (Francesco Mazzola)</span><span class="style1"> (1503-1540)From Parma in the north of Italy, Parmigiano was an Italian </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Mannerist</a></span><span class="style1"> painter who was influenced by </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Correggio</a></span><span class="style1">. At the age of 21 he completed an innovative self-portrait in a convex mirror, showing a delicate and capable hand. He went to Rome in 1524 to absorb the principles of the high Renaissance and was confronted with a confusing mixture of sensibilities. Parmigiano barely managed to escape the sack of Rome in 1527 and went on to assimilate the various styles he encountered to develop a highly personal style. His imagination served him well and after the sack of Rome he went to Bologna and painted elegant religious subjects: </span><span class="style2">S. Rocco with a Donor</span><span class="style1"> (1527) and </span><span class="style2">Madonna of the Rose</span><span class="style1"> (1528-1530) were examples of this cultivated style. Returning to Parma, he painted frescoes in S. Maria della Steccata (1531-39). His </span><span class="style2">Madonna with the Long Neck</span><span class="style1"> followed in 1534-40. In this painting his tapering and distortion were taken to the extreme, creating a memorable but very strange rendering of Mary. Parmigiano's aristocratic portraits are noteworthy, but he is best remembered for his sensitive and spare compositions of religious themes. </span></text>
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<text><span class="style1">e manages to create a stable, luminous composition which shows a </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Michelangelesque</a></span><span class="style1"> glorification of the human body. Correggio's treatment of soft human flesh is unparalleled. The creases in the cheeks, legs and buttocks of the cherubs is nothing short of brilliant. His works are a direct avenue to the illusionistic ceilings of the Baroque. Correggio's compositions favor sweeping diagonals, as in the </span><span class="style2">Madonna della Scodella </span><span class="style1"> (c.1530), or sensuous floating motion as in the </span><span class="style2">Deposition</span><span class="style1"> (c.1522) in Parma, where draperies are emphasized and the poses of the figures are unstable. Here is the liberation from the symmetry of the high Renaissance. His mythological canvasses celebrate the sensuousness of human flesh. The perverse promiscuity of adolescence is depicted in </span><span class="style2">Leda and the Swan</span><span class="style1"> (c.1530). The voluptuous desire of the Gods, representing adulthood, is explored in </span><span class="style2">The Loves of Jupiter: </span><span class="style1"> particularly the erotic </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Jupiter</a></span><span class="style1"> and Antiope. Correggio's art, in many ways, renounces the discoveries of the Renaissance painters, allowing for an entirely new focus and stance. He directly influenced painters such as </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Carracci</a></span><span class="style1">, Baroccio and </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Parmigiano</a></span><span class="style1"> and led the way for Baroque art of the 17th and 18th centuries.</span></text>
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<text><span class="style4">orreggio (Antonio Allegri)</span><span class="style1"> (1494-1534) From Parma in the North of Italy, Correggio was educated at Mantua and was tremendously influenced by </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Mantegna</a></span><span class="style1">. The stern edges of Mantegna are softened with an intelligent use of sfumato (a smokelike haziness that softens outlines in paintings, as in Leonardo's work) indicating Correggio was influenced by </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Leonardo</a></span><span class="style1"> and Lorenzo Costa, and </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Raphael</a></span><span class="style1">. In Holy Night the lifesize figures are illuminated from the light of the Christ child. Adoring angels hover in the upper left corner, lighted from below. Dramatically, dawn breaks in the distance, introducing another natural light source. Correggio tried to break up the high Renaissance symmetry and experimented with unusual light sources. His frescoes for the cupola of Parma cathedral are done on a grand scale. </span><span class="style2">The Assumption of the Virgin</span><span class="style1"> (1524-1530) shows Correggio's brilliance in dealing with the perspective of the dome — as if one is looking up to heaven. The foreshortening of the figures works to perfection, that which is real in the architecture and that which is painted are indistinguishable. </span></text>
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<text><span class="style1">is early work is very serious, as evidenced by the </span><span class="style2">Noli mi tangere</span><span class="style1"> (c.1510). Commissions to decorate religious buildings allowed him to develop a more lively style: entrance to the Annunziata — the</span><span class="style2"> Miracles of Saint Filippo Benizzi,</span><span class="style1"> and the decoration of the little Chiostro dello Scalzo, Florence: </span><span class="style2">Baptism of Christ</span><span class="style1"> and </span><span class="style2">The Birth of John the Baptist.</span><span class="style1"> For the nuns of the Convent of S. Francesco he painted the </span><span class="style2">Madonna of the Harpies</span><span class="style1"> (1517), named after the harpies that adorn the throne. It is Raphaelesque in the harmony and grace of the Madonna, but the drapery imitates </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Michelangelo</a></span><span class="style1">'s sculptural style. Del Sarto's facial types are idealized and very beautiful. His work does not show the torment of other Mannerists. </span><span class="style4">Jacopo da Pontormo (Carucci)</span><span class="style1"> (1494-1552)Pontormo was an extremely precise </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Mannerist</a></span><span class="style1"> painter whose work is characterized by supreme draftsmanship and a penchant for Leonardesque contour lines. A student of </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Andrea del Sarto</a></span><span class="style1">, Pontormo worked for the </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Medici</a></span><span class="style1"> family in Florence, accepting commissions such as the decoration of the Villa at Poggio a Caiano. His </span><span class="style2">Deposition</span><span class="style1"> (1526), a Mannerist masterpiece of composition, is his most memorable work.</span></text>
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<text><span class="style1">n ailing 71-year-old Michelangelo accepted his greatest architectural commission — the continuation of the building of </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">St. Peter's</a></span><span class="style1">, simplifying Bramante's original plans, making it more sculptural. (The dome was completed after his death, raised in height by </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Giacomo della Porta</a></span><span class="style1"> in 1588-1590, rendering it quite different from Michelangelo's plans.)Michelangelo was carving an upright </span><span class="style2">Pieta</span><span class="style1"> until 6 days before his death. No longer was there the calmness of his earlier genius. These slender, ghost-like forms seem to embody a poignant despair, anticipating death, contrasting with his earlier massive, muscular figures. </span><span class="style4">Andrea del Sarto </span><span class="style1"> (1486-1531) Del Sarto was a Florentine painter influenced by Michelangelo, but faithful to the high Renaissance. With </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Leonardo</a></span><span class="style1"> and </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Raphael</a></span><span class="style1"> he was one of the most significant proponents of Florentine Classicism. The son of a tailor, as a young man he worked as a goldsmith's assistant and was then taught by </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Piero di Cosimo</a></span><span class="style1">. </span></text>
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<text><span class="style1">ome was poverty-stricken after the sack of 1527. </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Clement VII</a></span><span class="style1"> asked Michelangelo to paint the </span><span class="style2">Resurrection</span><span class="style1"> on the end wall of the Sistine Chapel. After Clement died, Pope Paul III (a Farnese Pope) ordered an out-sized </span><span class="style2">Last Judgement.</span><span class="style1"> In the process of creating this masterpiece, Michelangelo had to destroy part of the Sistine Chapel ceiling behind the altar. Christ, a massive individual in </span><span class="style2">The Last Judgement,</span><span class="style1"> makes a fierce gesture as he pronounces His curse on the damned. No other artist could command the human figure like Michelangelo. In this magnificently conceived, complicated, convoluted vision of the Judgement, the Son of the strong and jealous God of Deuteronomy is exercising his Father's justice. Michelangelo turned to architecture in his late career. The Biblioteca Laurenziana in Florence was one of his projects. The Piazza del Campidoglio, one of the great civic centers of the Renaissance, was given a severe majesty by the enormous pillars under very heavy pediments. </span></text>
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<text><span class="style1">ichelangelo painted the nine scenes from Genesis with little help from assistants and he changed the scale of figures owing to the height of the 60-foot ceiling. The high Renaissance principle of composition created by the interaction of component elements is exhibited in his rendering of simulated architecture and the 20 nude figures of youths holding bands that pass through medallions of bronze. As functional but decorative devices, they are brilliant. The </span><span class="style2">Creation of Adam</span><span class="style1"> is a marvel of form and imagination. In all nine scenes, the figures painted by Michelangelo are incredible feats of artistic ability.After the completion of the Sistine Chapel ceiling, Michelangelo returned to sculpture. A final sojourn in Florence from 1516 to 1534 was occupied by the completion of a Medici funerary chapel in the New Sacristy of San Lorenzo where the seven carved figures remain his largest grouped legacy. The famous figures of </span><span class="style2">Day, Night, Dawn </span><span class="style1">and</span><span class="style2"> Twilight,</span><span class="style1"> personifications of time, appear here.</span></text>
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<text><span class="style1">ther famous works of sculpture such as the </span><span class="style2">Dying Slave</span><span class="style1"> and the </span><span class="style2">Rebellious Slave</span><span class="style1"> date from 1505-1513, exemplifying Michelangelo's penchant for figures in action — being liberated from the stone by his genius. Michelangelo broke from the Renaissance tradition in certain works. The male nude became a formidable passion in his art in both sculpture and painting and he created a style that was emotional, eccentric, complicated and compulsive. The Italians referred to his individualistic work as "terriblita," defined as "the sublime shadowed with the awesome and the fearful."In 1508, a few months before inviting Michelangelo's rival, </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Raphael</a></span><span class="style1">, to decorate the Stanze in the Vatican, Pope Julius II commissioned Michelangelo to paint the Sistine Chapel ceiling. The project was extended in size down to the springing lines where the lunettes were alternated with pendentives. In all, he painted 343 figures within the compartments marked on the vault by a network of illusionistic frames in "trompe l'oeil" (i.e., trick or fool the eye illusion). He chose the theme of the history of humanity from the Creation to Noah. </span></text>
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<text><span class="style1">his was an important period in Michelangelo's early career when he also did paintings such as the </span><span class="style2">Doni Tondo</span><span class="style1"> (1503) and cartoon for the </span><span class="style2">Battle of Cascina,</span><span class="style1"> which has disappeared. Pope </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Julius II</a></span><span class="style1"> became aware of Michelangelo's versatility and entrusted him with a project for his tomb, which may have been destined for Saint Peter's. While Michelangelo was waiting for the marble he had chosen in Carrara, Julius changed gears on the idea of the mausoleum, causing Michelangelo to leave Rome in a pique. On no less than five occasions before the Pope's death, Michelangelo returned to the project, completing the scaled-down version between 1542 and 1545. The original version was supposed to include 40 larger-than-life statues, a super human feat even for Michelangelo as in his whole career there is no record of 40 statues. The massive, muscular sculpture of the famed activist prophet </span><span class="style2">Moses</span><span class="style1"> is from this project. </span></text>
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<text><span class="style1">ichelangelo was in Rome between 1496 and 1501 when his first </span><span class="style2">Pieta</span><span class="style1"> (1497-1499) was produced. He took this northern European subject and interpreted it for the French cardinal Jean de Villiers de la Groslaye. In the work, he infused a Leonardesque gentleness with a Classical restraint, creating his first masterpiece. He went back to Florence for four years and moved toward Classicism with his </span><span class="style2">Bruges Madonna</span><span class="style1"> (c.1504-1506) purchased by the city for the Church of Notre Dame. His </span><span class="style2">David</span><span class="style1"> (1501-1504) was carved from a damaged block of marble abandoned by </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Duccio</a></span><span class="style1">, because he considered it too narrow for a piece of sculpture. Michelangelo's </span><span class="style2">David</span><span class="style1"> showed his understanding of the nature of stone carving in its new stance for the young hero. </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">David</a></span><span class="style1"> is looking at his foe (or at the viewer): Goliath has not yet been dealt with. Michelangelo's disposition and temperament are summed up in this sculpture. His work is devoted to the representation of "towering pent-up passion" as opposed to idealized beauty. The 14-foot </span><span class="style2">David</span><span class="style1"> exhibits Michelangelo's heroic style. The statue was part of a grouping in the Cathedral in Florence but the Florentine people felt it was so magnificent that it was exhibited in front of the Palazzo Vecchio. </span></text>
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<text><span class="style1">ichelangelo, born to an old Florentine family, began his training in the studio of </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Ghirlandaio</a></span><span class="style1">. From there he entered the informal school of the </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Medici</a></span><span class="style1"> gardens near the monastery of San Marco, where the Medici had amassed a large collection of ancient sculpture. After the fall of the Medici in Florence and the creation of a new state under </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Savonarola</a></span><span class="style1"> (who preached against the decadence of Florence), Michelangelo reverted to voluntary exile and began a career of quarreling with popes and being difficult with patrons. He had developed a philosophy under the influence of Platonism and Florentine </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Neo-Platonism</a></span><span class="style1"> which formed a synthesis of Greek philosophy and the Christian revelation. Michelangelo was always a devout Christian. His work was influenced by the anatomical studies of </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Antonio Pallaiuolo</a></span><span class="style1"> and the sculpture of della Quercia and </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Donatello</a></span><span class="style1">. </span></text>
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<text><span class="style4">ichelangelo Buonarroti</span><span class="style1"> (1475-1564) Michelangelo, an irascible genius, was one of the great masters of the Italian Renaissance. A complex, seminal thinker, he was renowned for being difficult with his patrons and it is said that he disliked </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Leonardo</a></span><span class="style1"> and was jealous of </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Raphael</a></span><span class="style1">, two of his contemporaries. His focus in art was the exultation of the human form. Michelangelo and his art were one and the same — he was completely devoted to his work. Although he was a sculptor, painter, military engineer, architect and poet, he always considered himself a sculptor. He believed that the image produced by the artist's hand must come from his mind, the idea being wrought by genius. It is the artist's quest to search for the idea and to bring forth the idea, as if giving "birth" to the idea. Unlike Leonardo and other high Renaissance artists, Michelangelo did not adhere to strict mathematical tendencies. He believed that the mind was the best mathematical tool and that the artist's judgement was pure and absolute. </span></text>
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<text><span class="style1">e painted 2 altarpieces for the choir of Halle Cathedral, St. Sebastian and The Adoration of the Magi. He was adept at designing in stained glass as well as at illustrating books. Baldung Grien became a citizen of Strasbourg, then travelled around Germany painting altarpieces and portraits and producing woodcuts. </span><span class="style4">Alonso Berruguarte</span><span class="style1"> (c.1489-1561) Berruguarte, a painter, sculptor and architect, was the son of Pedro Berruguarte, the painter. Alonso studied in Florence and Rome and was influenced by the Italians. He was appointed court painter to King Charles I. Preferring sculpture to painting, he set up a sculpture shop in Valladolid and carved altarpieces. His high point is the </span><span class="style2">S. Benito Altarpiece</span><span class="style1"> (1526-1532). He was a master of groups in the round, showing great passion. In Toledo, he carved figures from the Old and New Testaments.</span></text>
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<text><span class="style1">ltdorfer's most famous painting was produced at the end of his life. The</span><span class="style2"> Battle of Issus</span><span class="style1"> (or Alexander's Victory or The Battle of Arbela) is a bird's eye view of an Alpine landscape depicting the battle where </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Alexander the Great</a></span><span class="style1"> overthrew the Persian King Darius. It is a cosmic, visionary landscape with the moon shining. A huge inscription in the sky relates the story. There is a total subordination of the human figure to the landscape. The "cosmographical" landscape anticipated the opening up of the sciences and study of cosmology — the power of the cosmos in man's realm, showing the smallness of man in relation of the universe. </span><span class="style4">Hans Baldung Grien</span><span class="style1"> (1480-1545) A German painter and printmaker, Grien became a journeyman and went to Nuremberg where he studied with </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Durer</a></span><span class="style1"> (1503). The Master's influence is seen in his drawings and engravings. Baldung Grien was essentially a colorist, particularly skilled with the use of white. </span></text>
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<text><span class="style1">ltdorfer is primarily representative of Donaustil (Danube Style). The depiction of landscape stresses mood, sometimes "heightened to passion." Altdorfer was a gifted colorist who doted on translating the effects of atmospheric light and color on forests and ruins. He painted one landscape without figures, making it the first landscape in Western art painted for its own sake. One of his most universally admired paintings is </span><span class="style2">The Rest on the Flight into Egypt</span><span class="style1"> (1510) which has the Holy Family stopped at an elaborate Italianate fountain. In 1511 he travelled through the Tyrol. Upon returning, he entered the service of Emperor </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Maximilian I</a></span><span class="style1">. Around 1515 he decorated pages of his </span><span class="style2">Prayer Book</span><span class="style1"> with whimsical illustrations of knights, barnyard animals, peasants, fantastical scenes, angels and religious imagery mixed amongst the secular. </span></text>
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<text><span class="style1">he earliest of Cranach's nudes dates back to woodcuts done in 1506 and a painting of </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Venus</a></span><span class="style1"> done in 1509. These were followed by </span><span class="style2">Nymph at the Spring</span><span class="style1"> (1518) and the famous </span><span class="style2">Lucretia</span><span class="style1"> (c.1530). Lucretia displays the distorted, porcelain-like, mannered figure, beautifully drafted, topped off by an enormous hat. His hunt scenes were popular, including the famous one of </span><span class="style2">Frederick the Wise and Maximilian</span><span class="style1"> (1529). Cranach's paintings and prints leave us with an instructive contemporary image of his day.</span><span class="style4">Albrecht Altdorfer</span><span class="style1"> (c.1480-1538)In addition to holding the title of city architect of Regensberg, Bavaria Altdorfer is known to have purchased houses in that town and to have refused nomination as a burgomaster of Regensberg. He died an affluent man. About 1506 we see the emergence of his work. Germany at this time had seen the influences of the Italian Renaissance. Some artists studied in Italy and all artists of note were contemporaries of </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Michelangelo</a></span><span class="style1">, </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Raphael</a></span><span class="style1">, </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Georgione</a></span><span class="style1"> and </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Titian</a></span><span class="style1">. </span></text>
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<text><span class="style4">ucas Cranach, The Elder</span><span class="style1"> (1472-1553) A German Protestant painter and acquaintance of </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Martin Luther</a></span><span class="style1">, Cranach was always a painter of modest talent, although he ran a very successful shop. Early in his career he painted portraits and a </span><span class="style2">Crucifixion</span><span class="style1"> destined for a Scottish monastery in Vienna c.1500. In 1508 he had made a journey to the Low Countries where he was given a crest of a winged dragon, which he used in his fashionable workshop as a signature. Cranach accepted the sensuality of Italian Renaissance art but had little interest in theories on proportion. His workshop produced porcelain-like nudes set in or against wild foliated landscapes. In his mannered way, he was apt to put an outlandish hat on a sedate nude. Politically, he served three electors of the </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Holy Roman Empire</a></span><span class="style1">. He was called to Wittenberg by Frederick the Wise in 1504, where he served until Frederick's death in 1525. Following Frederick was John the Constant, whom Cranach served until 1532, followed by John Frederick the Magnificent whom Cranach followed into captivity in Augsberg in 1550. </span></text>
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<text><span class="style1">n 1528 Holbein returned to Basel where he painted a very stern portrait of his family. He moved to Antwerp and eventually to London where many of his friends were imprisoned or in disgrace. He found patrons among the wealthy Germans in London. It was at this time that he painted his famous portrait </span><span class="style2">The Ambassadors,</span><span class="style1"> a double portrait of the French envoys Jean de Dinteville and Georges de Selve. The two men seem capable of walking away from the deep green background. Holbein's technique can only be described as astonishing. Eventually Holbein became the official painter of the English court, and the favorite painter of Henry VIII. He painted the portraits of three of </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Henry's six wives</a></span><span class="style1">: Jane Seymour, Anne of Cleves and Catherine Howard. The famous portraits of Henry himself depict the king as a gargantuan-hedonist bedecked in ermine and brocade. Holbein assimilated the northern tendencies with a careful study of Italian art. He has the </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Eyckian</a></span><span class="style1"> fascination for miniscule detail. His Germanic linear tradition became the translator of personalities into portraits of tremendous psychological depth. He is the master of the oriental carpet in perspective. Henry VIII called Holbein "Master Hans" and provided him with a studio in Saint James' Palace. </span></text>
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<text><span class="style4">ans Holbein, the Younger </span><span class="style1"> (1497-1543)One of the finest portrait painters of all time, from the age of 18 Holbein the Younger was in Basel, where he rose to fame rapidly. One of his earliest commissions was to illustrate </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Erasmus</a></span><span class="style1">' </span><span class="style2">In Praise of Folly,</span><span class="style1"> paid for by humanist Oswald Myconius. Holbein came in contact with the printer Johannes Froben who commissioned him to do numerous frontispieces and book illustrations. All along, Holbein painted portraits such as that of the burgomaster Jakob Meyer and his wife Dorothea Kannengiesser. In 1519 he joined the Basel painter's guild and in 1520 became a burgher through his marriage to a widow. Jakob Meyer got him a commission to decorate the Basel Town Hall. Holbein was introduced to Erasmus of Rotterdam and painted two famous portraits of him in profile. It was a time of religious controversy, and Erasmus recommended Holbein to </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Sir Thomas More</a></span><span class="style1">, Chancellor of England under </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Henry VIII</a></span><span class="style1">. He was accepted by the circle of Erasmus's friends. </span></text>
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<text><span class="style4">rans Floris</span><span class="style1"> (c.1517-1570) Trained by Hieronymous Cock, from the beginning of his career Floris was a proponent of Romanism. He travelled to Rome and the figures in his </span><span class="style2">Last Judgement</span><span class="style1"> are notably </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Michelangelesque</a></span><span class="style1">. From 1540 he was a Guild member in Antwerp where he had the leading shop. </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">William of Orange</a></span><span class="style1"> was one of his patrons. </span><span class="style2">The Fall of the Rebel Angels</span><span class="style1"> (1554) is his most famous work and its </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Mannerist</a></span><span class="style1"> overtones have twisted figures in contorted postures, dense composition with dramatic, often violent movement. His palette was different from earlier Flemish painters, as he was very much influenced by the Italians. Floris transported the Italian style to Antwerp in his </span><span class="style2">Feast of the Sea Gods</span><span class="style1"> (1561). In his </span><span class="style2">Last Judgement</span><span class="style1"> he uses Mannerist devices favored by </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Tintoretto</a></span><span class="style1">. The frame is conceived as the entrance to an abyss. The figures in the bottom left of the picture are half off the canvas in an undefined space (limbo?) and another figure is being pushed downward by a hideous demon into the same undefined space (hell?). Floris was also a competent portraitist and he used clear facial detail, achieving psychological rendering of faces. The degree of sharpness on the clothing is remarkable.</span></text>
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<text><span class="style1">ertsen influenced Flemish painters of the 17th century with his kitchen scenes. Late in his career he used Italian formulas with a northern flair and at that point used any excuse to paint food heaped up in obscene volumes. Two of his famous genre paintings are </span><span class="style2">Cook</span><span class="style1"> (1559) and </span><span class="style2">Egg Dance</span><span class="style1"> (1557). </span><span class="style4">Maerten van Heemskerck </span><span class="style1"> (1498-1574) This Dutch </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Mannerist</a></span><span class="style1"> painter was influenced by the nudes of </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Michelangelo</a></span><span class="style1"> and ancient ruins (his </span><span class="style2">Roman Sketchbook</span><span class="style1"> is in Berlin). He was a northern practitioner of Italian Mannerism, favoring crowded compositions, elongated figures and bright colors. He is noteworthy as a very competent portraitist, capable of capturing a person's essence within a natural setting and he maintained a Dutch sense of realism despite his interest in Italian realism. </span></text>
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<text><span class="style4">an van Scorel</span><span class="style1"> (1495-1562) Van Scorel was a Dutch painter, architect, engineer, poet and musician. He established </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">humanism</a></span><span class="style1"> and the Italian style in Holland. He travelled extensively for the time, making trips to Germany, Switzerland, Venice and Jerusalem. After his visit to the Holy Land, he went to Rome when Pope </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Adrian VI</a></span><span class="style1">, the Utrecht-born Pope, was in power. Pope Adrian appointed Van Scorel keeper of the papal collections. Van Scorel's style reflects his travels. His religious works are very Classical and his portraits are a sound example of a wooden style with "soul." He is noteworthy for having used nontraditional nudes in his religious paintings. </span><span class="style4">Pieter Aertsen </span><span class="style1"> (c.1508-1575) A Dutch painter and Master at Antwerp in 1535, Aertsen also became a burgher in 1542. His works are signed with his initials and a trident, symbols of his father's clothworker's card. His forte was still life painting but in his career he painted altarpieces, paintings with tiny figures and popular genre scenes of the day. </span></text>
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card_80675.xml
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<text><span class="style1">ruegel painted forest scenes such as </span><span class="style2">Saint John the Baptist Preaching,</span><span class="style1"> scenes of the sea such as </span><span class="style2">Storm at Sea</span><span class="style1"> and scenes with atmospheric effects as in Skaters. Bruegel is sardonic in his interpretations of the peasants in </span><span class="style2">The Wedding Banquet</span><span class="style1"> or</span><span class="style2"> Peasant Dance.</span><span class="style1"> These are not the simple, frolicking folk of the earlier genre paintings and there is a bitterness in their wildly animated faces, a mocking realism. Later diminutive paintings: </span><span class="style2">The Bird Nester, The Magpie on the Gallows</span><span class="style1"> and the </span><span class="style2">Beggars</span><span class="style1"> show an hallucinatory quality. The bitterness becomes more pronounced in two paintings on canvas, </span><span class="style2">The Misanthrope</span><span class="style1"> and the </span><span class="style2">Parable of the Blind. </span><span class="style1">Early in his career, Bruegel the genre painter was humored by doltishness, but later in life experience seems to have taught him about the sadness and futility of hard work in light of nature. In this realization he exalted the common man and man's defiance in the face of doom. Bruegel was primarily a Flemish colorist who created form with color; his most valuable tool was his imagination. </span></text>
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<text><span class="style1">ruegel came to painting late in his career. His first works were landscape drawings from nature and sarcastic drawings in the style of Bosch (e.g., </span><span class="style2">Cardinal Sins, Virtues</span><span class="style1"> ). The earliest works were folklore subjects but after 1562 his landscapes became more encompassing. The </span><span class="style2">Fall of Icarus</span><span class="style1"> dates from this period, as does the </span><span class="style2">Tower of Babel </span><span class="style1"> and the </span><span class="style2">Procession to Calvary.</span><span class="style1"> </span><span class="style2">The Triumph of Death</span><span class="style1"> shows a grim view of man's human mortality and is a vision in the manner of Bosch. The futility of fighting life's inevitability, death, is shown with graphic clarity. Bruegel painted peasants accepting their bondage to the earth and in these works simple humanity is raised to a high art form. Later in life he became more meditative, as evidenced in his paintings of the </span><span class="style2">Months.</span><span class="style1"> This series is an heroic tale of rural life and man's reliance on the changing of the seasons. The style of Bruegel's painting changed and became more "airy." The horizon line is lowered and the use of seasonal color enhances each composition. </span></text>
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<text><span class="style1">aving travelled to Italy, he brought back remarkable drawings of the Alpine landscape. He loved Italy where he absorbed Italian knowledge and adapted it to his Northern sensibility. He was painting in the troubled "century of beggars." Although he was not a member of the radical sect of Protestants opposing the Spanish dominion, he was deeply affected by the consequences. Bruegel rejected the traditional fine art subjects of the day: the nude and great historical subjects with Classical settings. He was a genre painter deeply influenced by </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Bosch</a></span><span class="style1">. He painted the activities of the ordinary laborer and felt the work of an average man surpassed any supernatural event, even death. "When a man dies, no plow stops." The cycle of nature is emphasized in his art; he believed no man could escape this cycle. </span></text>
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<text><span class="style4">ean Goujon</span><span class="style1"> (c.1510-1568)Goujon is a sculptor associated with the classical style of the French Renaissance. The statues of </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">the Louvre</a></span><span class="style1"> courtyard are his. His famous </span><span class="style2">Nymphs</span><span class="style1"> from </span><span class="style2">The Fountain of the Innocents </span><span class="style1"> in Paris are adaptations of </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Mannerist</a></span><span class="style1"> figure design. The slender, sinuous figures, dressed in wet drapery, seem to be in perpetual motion. The </span><span class="style2">Nymphs</span><span class="style1"> are French masterpieces and show a lightness and grace that is characteristic of native French "chic." The style is most likely adapted from Roman models, but the Nymphs foreshadow the ornate </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Rococo</a></span><span class="style1"> and Neoclassic art to come.</span><span class="style4">Pieter Bruegel the Elder</span><span class="style1"> (c. 1526-1569) Bruegel was a </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Netherlandish</a></span><span class="style1"> Master of universal importance in the 16th century. He worked in the engraving workshop of Hieronymous Cock after becoming a Master of Antwerp in 1551. He eventually settled in Brogel, in Belgian Limburg, and married Maria Coecke van Aelst in 1563. They made their family home in Brussels. </span></text>
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<text><span class="style1">rcading on the ground floor reflects the ancient Roman arch order, producing string shadows by recessing the ground floor. The decreased height of the stories and the large windows are northern in style. The south courtyard is the best of French Renaissance architecture. </span><span class="style4">Jean Clouet</span><span class="style1"> (c.1500-1541) Clouet painted the famous portrait of </span><span class="style2">Francis I</span><span class="style1"> in the Franco-Italian style, stiff and formal. The elegantly dressed Prince is fondling his dagger, showing the worldly wise man of action, poised and ready. The direction of the light emphasizes the head and costume. The diagonals and textures are emphasized as well. Part of the </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Fontainebleau</a></span><span class="style1"> School, Clouet favors this </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Mannerist</a></span><span class="style1"> formula for portraiture. </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Holbein</a></span><span class="style1"> visited France and was influenced by Clouet. </span></text>
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<text><span class="style4">hambourd Palace </span><span class="style1">Chambourd Palace was built on the site of a countryside fortress. This style of fortress was developed by </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Leonardo</a></span><span class="style1"> for the Dukes of Milan. Domenico da Cortona (fl. 1515-1540) was the architect. He used the Italian ideas of symmetry and balance and imposed them upon the irregularity of the old French fortress. The central square block has four corridors and is shaped like a cross. The broad central staircase has access to groups of rooms. The basically square plan has four round towers on the corners. Windows are placed one over the other, matching the horizontal and vertical features based on the Italian palazzo. French at heart, Chambourd shows the amalgamation of French Gothic and Italianate styles. </span><span class="style4">The Louvre </span><span class="style1">Designed by Pierre Lescot (c. 1515-1578) who was familiar with the high Renaissance style of </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Bramante</a></span><span class="style1">. The Louvre has steep roofs and large windows which were necessary for the French climate. Each story of the building forms a complete order and the cornices project enough to form a strong horizontal accent. </span></text>
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<text><span class="style1">osso Fiorentino led the Fontainebleau workshops for 10 years. He personally decorated the Gallerie Francois with gaudy stucco-work and frescoes. Primaticcio was influenced by </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Michelangelo</a></span><span class="style1">'s "forma serpentinata," a stylistic device. He decorated the Chambre du Roi, the Galerie d'Ulysse and the Salle de Bal. Primaticcio's frescoes often included ornate wreaths and garlands and delicately rendered nude female figures. Niccolo dell'Abbate was called upon by Primaticcio for assistance. He was preoccupied by color and landscape and introduced a fantastical element to the Fontainebleau Style. The palace is typically Mannerist in its abrupt changes in scale and texture. The stucco and frescoes at Fontainebleau are elaborate and profuse. The aesthetic level of the court reflects flamboyant (relating back to Gothic tracery and the "flame" motif in decoration) architecture and decoration. Cross-legged Mannerist figures form endless designs in relief and fresco.</span></text>
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<text><span class="style1">he tombs resemble triumphal arches. From 1513 until his death, Sansovino was put in charge of the marble cladding of the Holy House in the Basilica of Loreto, carving two of the large marble reliefs himself, and supervising his assistants. This commission is one of the finest examples of high Renaissance architecture and sculpture. </span><span class="style4">Fontainebleau </span><span class="style1">Fontainebleau, Francis I's palace, was designed by the architects Gilles de Breton (fl. 1520-1540), Phillibert Delorme (c.1515-1570) and </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Francesco Primaticcio</a></span><span class="style1"> (1504-1570). </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Francis I</a></span><span class="style1"> decided to remodel the chateau of Fontainebleau in the Italian style. When he put the </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Mannerist</a></span><span class="style1"> artists </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Rosso Fiorentino</a></span><span class="style1">, Francesco Primaticcio and Niccolo dell'Abbate to the new center of operations, Francis I founded the Fontainebleau School. The style was an assimilation of Italianate, French and northern tendencies. </span></text>
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<text><span class="style4">ntonio da Sangallo</span><span class="style1"> (1483-1546) Sangallo was the Florentine architect who designed the Farnese Palace in Rome. He uses the strict Classical order with the regularity, simplicity and dignity of the high Renaissance. He was the youngest of the Sangallo family of architects and </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Giuliano</a></span><span class="style1"> was his uncle. He became Bramante's draftsman and assistant. Sangallo was Pope </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Paul III</a></span><span class="style1">'s favorite architect and became the papal and military architect. He developed the modern method of bastioned fortification. His rival was </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Michelangelo</a></span><span class="style1"> who was more imaginative. </span><span class="style4">Andrea Sansovino</span><span class="style1"> (c.1467-1529)Sansovino was a Tuscan sculptor who began modelling in terra cotta, then changed to marble. His is a high Renaissance style. He was in Portugal from 1491-1500 as an emissary of </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Lorenzo de Medici</a></span><span class="style1">. In Florence, he carved two statues for the Florentine Baptistry. In 1505 </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Julius II</a></span><span class="style1"> summoned him to Rome to carve two marble tombs for the choir of S. Maria del Popolo. </span></text>
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<text><span class="style4">iccolo dell'Arca</span><span class="style1"> (c.1460-1494) Also appearing as Niccolo Da Bari, or Nicola d'Apulia, he was a sculptor who worked in Naples and then in Bologna in a northern realistic style. Technically, his work is of very high quality. His </span><span class="style2">Lamentation of Christ,</span><span class="style1"> in painted terra cotta, exhibits unusual gesturing by the figures. The </span><span class="style2">Tomb of Saint Dominic</span><span class="style1"> at S. Domenico in Bologna is his masterpiece. It is a roof-shaped crowning with Christ of Mercy Adorned by Two Angels. </span><span class="style4">Giuliano da Sangallo </span><span class="style1"> (c.1445-1516) Born into a Florentine family of architects, Giuliano was always a close student of ancient Rome. As a young man, he carefully drew the Roman ruins, giving us much of the information we have today. The Church of Santa Maria delle Carceri at Prato, near Florence, is one of his designs. It has a gorgeous ribbed dome with occuli (circular, eye-like windows, set at intervals around a dome). The interior and exterior contrast both light and dark decoration, strikingly handsome in the Italian sun.</span></text>
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<text><span class="style4">addeo Zuccaro </span><span class="style1">(1529-1566)Zuccaro was a Roman, Italian </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Mannerist</a></span><span class="style1"> painter. In his short career, he painted mythological frescoes for Villa Giulia. With his brother Federico, he painted frescoes in the Vatican's Sala dei Palafrenieri. From 1559-1566 he did frescoes and stucco decorations at the Palazzo Farnese in Caprarola. </span><span class="style4">Sebastiano del Piombo</span><span class="style1"> (c.1485-1547)"Il Piombo" means "keeper of the papal seal." He was also known as Sebastiano Luciani and was a Venetian painter, student and friend of </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Georgione</a></span><span class="style1">. He is closely associated with Georgione's brand of Venetian Mannerism. Del Piombo painted frescoes in Rome at the Villa Farnesina as well as the lunettes in the loggia. He was a member of </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Raphael</a></span><span class="style1">'s circle, which is reflected in his sensitive, sweet portraits. In his final stage, under the influence of </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Michelangelo</a></span><span class="style1">, his work becomes heavier in mass: </span><span class="style2">Pieta</span><span class="style1"> (c.1515) and in the </span><span class="style2">Resurrection of Lazarus </span><span class="style1"> (1519). After the sack of Rome in 1527, he wandered through Italy, returning to Rome in 1531 where he was made Keeper of the Papal Seal. </span></text>
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<text><span class="style4">iero di Cosimo (Piero di Lorenzo)</span><span class="style1"> (c. 1462-1521)A Florentine painter who studied with Cosimo Rosselli, he took his name and helped Rosselli complete some Sistine Chapel frescoes. Di Cosimo is known for his strange mythological themes. His masterpiece is </span><span class="style2">Venus, Cupid and Mars,</span><span class="style1"> showing flora and fauna in a mystical landscape. He exhibits an earthiness with a penchant for the bizarre yet there is a trueness to his interpretations of man and nature. Some fine portraiture also remains. </span><span class="style4">Antonio Rossellino</span><span class="style1"> (1427-1479)Rossellino, a Florentine sculptor, was more individualistic than his brother </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Bernardo Rossellino</a></span><span class="style1">. He redefined the wall-tomb of his day in the tomb for the young cardinal of Portugal who died in Florence at age 25. Rossellino retains the wall niche, but he carved curtains from marble and had the cardinal suspended by angels. Additional angels fly animatedly above the bier, holding a </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Della Robbia</a></span><span class="style1"> style wreath containing an image of the Virgin and Child gazing down on the cardinal. This piece begins the animated sculptural style of the late 15th century.</span></text>
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<text><span class="style1">is series of Madonna and Child pictures established the sweet style that is still famous today. Historically he is known for his simplicity and clarity of composition and space. Perugino's most famous student was </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Raphael</a></span><span class="style1">.</span><span class="style4">Bernardino di Pinturicchio </span><span class="style1"> (c.1454 -1513) Pinturicchio ("little painter"), also known as Bernardino di Betto di Biago, was an Italian painter, born in Perugia and active in Rome. Trained as a miniaturist, he worked with </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Perugino</a></span><span class="style1"> in Umbria and assisted him on the Sistine Chapel fresco </span><span class="style2">Christ Delivering Keys of the Kingdom to St. Peter.</span><span class="style1"> He adopted Perugino's palette of bright colors. Pinturicchio worked on many private commissions for palazzos and apartments, such as </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Innocent VIII</a></span><span class="style1">'s. Among his religious commissions is the Bufalini Chapel in Aracoeli. Pope </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Alexander VI</a></span><span class="style1"> loved Pinturicchio's use of color and detail and commissioned him to decorate the Borgia apartments in the Vatican. Particularly well-loved was Pinturicchio's use of ethereal blues and gold. For Siena Cathedral he produced the frescoes of </span><span class="style2">St. John the Baptist</span><span class="style1"> and a cartoon (i.e., life-sized sketch) for the </span><span class="style2">Fortuna,</span><span class="style1"> one of the designs for the cathedral pavement.</span></text>
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<text><span class="style4">ietro Perugino</span><span class="style1"> (1446-1523)Pietro Perugino is a transitional figure between the early and high Renaissance. Little is known about his early life. It is known that he learned the technique of oil painting from </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Andrea del Verrocchio</a></span><span class="style1">. Born in Umbria, Perugino was concerned with the "order" of pictorial space. He took a rational approach to composition. His first signed work is the </span><span class="style2">St. Sebastian</span><span class="style1"> fresco painted for the church of Cerqueto. By 1481 he was established enough to be asked to paint the walls of the Sistine Chapel at the Vatican. Bernardino Pinturicchio was his assistant, his Sistine fresco being </span><span class="style2">Christ Delivering the Keys of the Kingdom to Saint Peter.</span><span class="style1"> (The papacy bases its total authority over the Roman Catholic Church on this event.) The spatial science executed in this fresco masterfully interlocks the composition between two dimensional and three dimensional space. The fresco made his reputation and carried Perugino into a lively, productive period. He painted </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">the Louvre</a></span><span class="style1"> </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">tondo</a></span><span class="style1">, the </span><span class="style2">Virgin and Child Enthroned between Sts. Rose and Catherine</span><span class="style1"> (c. 1491-92), and the altarpiece of the </span><span class="style2">Madonna and Saints</span><span class="style1"> (1497). </span></text>
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<text><span class="style1">everal church commissions ensued, culminating in the famous frescoes for Orvieto Cathedral which represent subjects from The Last Judgement, influenced by both </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Leonardo</a></span><span class="style1"> and </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Michelangelo</a></span><span class="style1">. His </span><span class="style2">Damned Consigned to Hell</span><span class="style1"> is a daring composition of struggling nude figures with shrieking demons, biting, twisting, torturing and hauling them down to hell. Archangels, dressed in full armor, keep the damned from ascending to heaven. His color is used emotionally; humans are white or tan, while the demons are orange, purple and green. Signorelli inherited a sculptural style from Piero della Francesco. His strong sense of composition was heightened by his use of highly contrasted lighting. </span><span class="style2">The Realm of Pan</span><span class="style1"> is considered one of the most remarkable compositions of the late 15th century. It was a daring painting of nudes with erotic overtones, based on the "sacra conversazione," a traditional composition with figures grouped around a central throne. Signorelli had a long and productive career. His imagery was controversial, referred to as "terribilita," like Michelangelo's. He was, with Michelangelo, the last of the great Tuscan fresco painters.</span></text>
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<text><span class="style1">antegna acquired a taste for antiquities at an early age. It was in Venice that he painted his </span><span class="style2">Life of Saint James</span><span class="style1"> with the strong judgement and torture scenes. The architectural devices are Classical throughout this series. He was an unparalleled master at painting antiquities and archaeological reconstructions. He was considered the "Antiquarian of the Quattrocento," using Roman and Greek ornaments and fragments as inspiration. Mantegna was one of the first masters of engraving and directly influenced </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Albrecht Durer</a></span><span class="style1">. </span><span class="style4">Luca Signorelli </span><span class="style1"> (c.1441-1529)A pupil of </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Piero della Francesca</a></span><span class="style1">, Signorelli was born in Tuscany. He met the Pallaiuolo brothers and saw the frescoes by </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Fra Filippo Lippi</a></span><span class="style1"> in the Duomo at Prato, near Florence. His leanings were toward the Florentine style and in 1481 he was one of the painters invited by the pope to decorate the Sistine Chapel at the Vatican. His main contribution there was the fresco on the </span><span class="style2">Testament and Death of Moses.</span><span class="style1"> Signorelli had a tremendous gift for strong compositions. Commissions from Lorenzo the Magnificent included a </span><span class="style2">Madonna</span><span class="style1"> (c.1490) and </span><span class="style2">The Realm of Pan</span><span class="style1"> (c.1488). </span></text>
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<text><span class="style1">fter completing this project, he painted a series of nine large paintings of the </span><span class="style2">Triumph of Caesar</span><span class="style1"> to decorate a room in the Mantua palace. (These paintings were restored in the 1960s and are in </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Hampton Court</a></span><span class="style1"> Palace in England). Renaissance spatial construction and perspective are Mantegna's fortes. He puts perspective at eye-level, making figures seem to move in space. His famous painting of the </span><span class="style2">Dead Christ</span><span class="style1"> (1465-66) exhibits his mastery of "in scurto" (extreme foreshortening). </span><span class="style2">Saint Sebastian</span><span class="style1"> (early 1470s) and the </span><span class="style2">Madonna of the Rocks</span><span class="style1"> (1484) are also important works. Mantegna was invited to Rome by Pope </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Innocent VIII</a></span><span class="style1"> to decorate the Belvedere Chapel in the Vatican. He completed commissions for the Gonzaga family in Mantua and worked for Isabella d'Este in Ferrara where he decorated the princess's study. The commission included </span><span class="style2">Parnassus</span><span class="style1"> (1497), </span><span class="style2">Minerva Expelling the Vices from the Grove of Virtue</span><span class="style1"> (1501-02) and </span><span class="style2">Comus</span><span class="style1"> (completed by Lorenzo Costa). The Church of Sant'Andrea designs were famous for the ceiling painting with the children looking down at the viewer. This piece began a long tradition of illusionistic ceiling and dome paintings that continued for three centuries. </span></text>
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<text><span class="style1">ellini's two altarpieces show the contrast of an overly composed and busy picture with a more orderly, simple approach in 1505. Bellini's </span><span class="style2">Feast of the Gods</span><span class="style1"> shows his command of color. Even as an old man Bellini changed his style, showing an ever-inquisitive mind. In the </span><span class="style2">Feast of the Gods</span><span class="style1"> he depicts humans with nymphs and satyrs. </span><span class="style4">Andrea Mantegna</span><span class="style1"> (1431-1506) A full-fledged painter at age of 17, Mantegna later worked on frescoes in the Ovetari Chapel in the Eremitani Church in Padua (1454). His competitors died, leaving Mantegna to finish the frescoes in 1457 and at the age of 26 his fame was established. He married Nicolsia Bellini, daughter of Jacopo Bellini and sister of Gentile and Giovanni, putting him in the family of the most well known Venetian artists. He was called to Mantua as a court painter in 1459. The Gonzaga family was in power at that time, and it was here that Mantegna painted the Camera degli Sposi (Bridal Chamber) at the Ducale Palace. The painting was a glorification of the Gonzaga family. </span></text>
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<text><span class="style4">entile Bellini </span><span class="style1"> (1429-1507) Bellini was a Venetian capable of manipulating oil paint to its fullest capacity. His unparalleled </span><span class="style2">Transfiguration of Christ</span><span class="style1"> is placed in a sub-Alpine landscape where joy in nature is blended with religious references. </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Durer</a></span><span class="style1"> visited Bellini in 1506 and saw Bellini's </span><span class="style2">Madonna Enthroned</span><span class="style1"> with the stately arches, dome, soft lighting and perfect balance of the figures. </span><span class="style4">Giovanni Bellini </span><span class="style1"> (c.1430-1516)The brother of Gentile Bellini, Giovanni was trained in the family shop and developed his own Venetian style after his father's (Jacopo) death. His palette developed into a sensuous one, the trademark of Venetian painting and he is known for his Madonnas and experimental technique with oil paints. His </span><span class="style2">San Giobbe Altarpiece</span><span class="style1"> is considered early Renaissance and his </span><span class="style2">San Zaccaria Altarpiece</span><span class="style1"> is considered high Renaissance. Precise drawing is also characteristic of the Venetian School. </span></text>
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<text><span class="style4">eorgione da Castelfranco</span><span class="style1"> (c.1476-1510) Georgione was the founder of a new Venetian tendency: he was a musician and poet who expressed the Venetian pastoral love of nature, music, women and pleasure. He painted a </span><span class="style2">Madonna Enthroned</span><span class="style1"> (1505) at about the same time as </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Bellini</a></span><span class="style1">, with a similar composition. The Virgin and Child (in</span><span class="style2"> Madonna Enthroned</span><span class="style1"> ) are placed on a high throne with no means of access in the real world. Landscape dominates the picture and there is sensitively soft modeling on the faces. Georgione was a proponent of the new "landscape and figure poem" in </span><span class="style2">The Tempest.</span><span class="style1"> The subject matter is mysterious. The Venetian School resurrected </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Venus</a></span><span class="style1">, goddess of love and beauty, from antiquity. </span></text>
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<text><span class="style1">aphael was a truly Classical artist who conceived some of the most perfectly balanced high Renaissance pictures. Using many of Leonardo's developments, such as </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">sfumato</a></span><span class="style1"> and </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">chiaroscuro</a></span><span class="style1">, he achieved harmony of figure and landscape. Other influences were </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Michelangelo</a></span><span class="style1"> and </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Titian</a></span><span class="style1">. Raphael died at the height of his glory at age of 37. </span><span class="style4">Donato Bramante</span><span class="style1"> (1444-1514)This Milan architect was the most important artist with which </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Leonardo</a></span><span class="style1"> came in contact. Born in Urbino, like </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Raphael</a></span><span class="style1">, he went to Milan in 1481 and stayed until 1499. In Milan he became the most famous architect of his time. He created the high Renaissance prototype of the "central plan" church. In 1499 Bramante went to Rome and built the Tempietto, the perfect prototype of classical domed architecture for the Renaissance and thereafter. </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Julius II</a></span><span class="style1"> commissioned Bramante to redesign St. Peter's basilica. Unfortunately, the design was not completed in his lifetime and was eventually finished by Michelangelo. The Tempietto comes close to the high Renaissance ideals of order, clarity, lucidity, simplicity, harmony and proportion. </span></text>
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<text><span class="style1">ope </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Julius II</a></span><span class="style1"> chose Raphael to supplement the chambers of the Vatican, where he was the court painter until his untimely death at age 37. Raphael was invited to paint the famous Stanze (the old apartments of Pope Nicholas V) in the Vatican. Julius II put Raphael in charge of the Vatican architectural projects, the decoration of the Vatican logge and the creation of 10 cartoons (i.e., full-sized sketches) for tapestries. Considered an accomplished portraitist as well as religious painter, Raphael's ideals of figural and compositional harmony became recognized as high Renaissance principles. His </span><span class="style2">Disputa</span><span class="style1"> and </span><span class="style2">The School of Athens</span><span class="style1"> typify Classical and Christian elements that culminated in the high Renaissance style. He favored the "figure 8" composition which fused the full resources of natural light with that of spiritual light. Examples of this technique are Galatea and Transfiguration. Pope </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Leo X</a></span><span class="style1"> appointed Raphael inspector general of Roman antiquities. He and other painters decorated room after room with scenes from pagan antiquity. </span></text>
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<text><span class="style4">aphael (Raffaello Sanzio)</span><span class="style1"> (1483-1520)Known as the fourth great Master of the Florentine and Roman high Renaissance, Raphael was born in Urbino and was taught by his father Giovanni Sanzio. Later on, he worked in </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Perugino</a></span><span class="style1">'s studio. Raphael is known for his lightness of composition: the S-curve of his figures and the ascending spiral. In 1505 he arrived in Rome at the age of 22. He was very successful from the start and met the demands of private patrons who could not approach </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Leonardo</a></span><span class="style1"> or </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Michelangelo</a></span><span class="style1">. In the early years he tended to rework Leonardo's ideas. Harmony, to Raphael, was the basic purpose of any composition. He was the spiritual child of Greek Classicism. He reinstated traditional haloes in his Florentine Madonnas, pictured as slender circlets of gold (perhaps on the insistence of his patrons). </span></text>
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<text><span class="style1">n later life, his paintings took on a religious tone. The allegorical tableaux for the Medici villas: </span><span class="style2">La Primavera</span><span class="style1"> (1478) and </span><span class="style2">The Birth of </span><span class="style8"><a href="#" class="group">Venus</a></span><span class="style1"> (1480) are his two most famous images. These works withdraw from the naturalism of the early Florentine Renaissance. Other works were commissioned by </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Cosimo de Medici</a></span><span class="style1">. Botticelli pictured the Medici clan as the Magi in his </span><span class="style2">Adoration of the Magi.</span><span class="style1"> His portraiture is extremely sensitive, and he was commissioned to decorate villas as well as religious buildings. The </span><span class="style2">St. Barnabas Altarpiece</span><span class="style1"> of the mid-1480s is a famous religious work. Botticelli was a Master of frescoes, of which his </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">St. Augustine</a></span><span class="style2"> </span><span class="style1"> is a masterpiece. He was later called upon to decorate the Sistine Chapel at the Vatican with scenes from the lives of </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Christ</a></span><span class="style1"> and </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Moses</a></span><span class="style1">. The later works were entombments often containing scenes of martyrdom. His illustrations on parchment of </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Dante</a></span><span class="style1">'s </span><span class="style2">Divine Comedy</span><span class="style1"> are among his finest works as a draftsman. </span></text>
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<text><span class="style1">eonardo's curiosity led to many of his artistic discoveries. The phenomenon of life itself fascinated him. Scientific investigation became established as a viable field of study in the high Renaissance. </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Raphael</a></span><span class="style1"> and </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Michelangelo</a></span><span class="style1">, Leonardo's younger competitors, learned from him despite the legendary rivalry between himself and Michelangelo. </span><span class="style4">Sandro Botticelli</span><span class="style1"> (c. 1444-1510) One of the most memorable Italian Renaissance painters, Botticelli came from Florence and was trained as a goldsmith. As a young man he perfected his hand with engraver's tools and eventually studied with </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Fra Filippo Lippi</a></span><span class="style1">, the leading painter in Florence in the 1480s and 1490s, in his bottega. Botticelli was early-on influenced by the preaching style of </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Savonarola</a></span><span class="style1">, but later these teachings caused a religious crisis in Botticelli's life. In his painting, his concentration was on line and he became a painter of intense delicacy who created pictures of beautiful women. </span></text>
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<text><span class="style1">hen the French were driven out in 1512, Leonardo followed Giulano de Medici to Rome. In 1515, after Giulano's death, Leonardo accepted the invitation of the new French King, </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Francis I</a></span><span class="style1">, to go to France. He retired there where his sole duty was "to converse with King Francis I."We can begin to understand Leonardo's achievements by going back to his early years in </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Verrocchio</a></span><span class="style1">'s shop. It was under the Master's influence that young Leonardo began his insatiable quest for encyclopedic knowledge. In the area of technique, Leonardo is unparalleled for reinventing/redefining time-honored devices such as "sfumato" and "</span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">chiaroscuro</a></span><span class="style1">." He gave a new breath of life to portraiture and landscape and his full-faced portraits of women, with relaxed pose, were considered innovative. In landscape, he tried to integrate details of foliage, plants and pebbles realistically. His landscapes sometimes took a panoramic view or captured glimpses of the far distance from a shadowy vault. Broad expanses of landscape in the distance were treated with chiaroscuro. </span></text>
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<text><span class="style1">t was also at this time that Leonardo painted the famous </span><span class="style2">Mona Lisa </span><span class="style1"> (La Gioconda - completed in 1507). The relaxed pose of the woman and the background coolly fading into the distance (an already-established Italian spatial device) became techniques reemphasized by Leonardo, with improvements. In this device, foreground, midground and background are clearly delineated in space. The warmest colors appear in the foreground, the neutral colors in the midground allowing the cool colors to recede atmospherically into the background. Two drawing tendencies identified with Leonardo's work are "chiaroscuro" (chiaro - light and oscuro - dark), the treatment or use of light and dark (in drawing or painting), especially the gradations of light that produce the effect of modeling; and "sfumato," a smoke-like haziness that subtly softens outlines in painting. Leonardo's French connection began at this time when he undertook a commission for Charles d'Amboise in Milan to complete a sculptural project in the monument to Trivulzio, a condottiere (i.e., leader) under </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Louis XII</a></span><span class="style1"> of France. </span></text>
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<text><span class="style1">t this time, Leonardo was concerned with the problems of architecture: he took an active part in the discussion about the Milan Cathedral spire (1487) and later the Cathedral at Pavia. His famous fresco of </span><span class="style2">The Last Supper</span><span class="style1"> was being painted, also in Milan, for the refectory of S. Maria delle Grazie from 1495-1497. His curiosity as a mathematician comes into play here where he has the disciples grouped in four groups of three, playing with the number 12. As an architect, he introduced the central plan, making use of geometric relationships and natural growth. He also designed war machinery for </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Cesare Borgia</a></span><span class="style1">. In 1503 the Florentine's commissioned him to paint the </span><span class="style2">Battle of Anghiari</span><span class="style1"> for the Hall of 500 in the Palazzo Vecchio. Leonardo observed the battle and with his first-hand knowledge, he created a prototype for battle scenes that was utilized throughout the high Renaissance, the Baroque and even into the 19th century. He painted "violently struggling horses in whirlwind composition." The soldiers are realistically shown in the throes of battle. </span></text>
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<text><span class="style1">eonardo's achievements in drawing are phenomenal. He always included notes, written backwards, in his sketchbooks. He took a purely scientific approach to the study of anatomy, creating the first accurate drawings of the growth of a human baby in the womb. With his belief in the divinity of the artist's mind, he upgraded the status of the artist in high Renaissance society. The decline of the guilds came at this time. Leonardo questioned the biblical account of the world being created in 4004 B.C. He studied fossils in the mountains and found remains of sea creatures captured in stone and from this he deduced that the land had been submerged in water long before 4004 B.C. In 1483 the Confraternity of the Immaculate Conception commissioned a painting for the Church of San Francesco, </span><span class="style2">The Madonna of the Rocks. </span><span class="style1"> The illuminated face, the intense detail and the dark landscape behind distinguish this famous painting. </span></text>
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<text><span class="style4">eonardo da Vinci</span><span class="style1"> (1452-1519) Leonardo da Vinci was one of the great men of history and the consummate "</span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Renaissance man</a></span><span class="style1">." With him, we arrive at the beginning of the high Renaissance. Leonardo was a talented painter, sculptor, inventor, architect, engineer, musician, investigator of aerodynamics, physicist, botanist, anatomist, geologist and geographer. He was an illegitimate child and a non-traditionalist for that reason. He always felt he had to try harder to achieve his goals. In his intellectual vision, there was no authority higher than the human "eye" and he referred to it as "the window of the soul." In 1469 he entered </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Verrocchio</a></span><span class="style1">'s studio where he was trained in all the various traditional techniques. He distinguished himself early on by painting the left angel in </span><span class="style2">The Baptism of Christ</span><span class="style1"> (c.1475) and a small </span><span class="style2">Annunciation.</span><span class="style1"> From 1478 on he began to receive important commissions</span></text>
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<text><span class="style4">ichael Pacher</span><span class="style1"> (c.1435-1498) A woodcarver and painter in an Austrian version of the flamboyant style, his home was along the trade route from the Alps to Northern Italy and the location influenced his art. His first signed work is the altarpiece for the old parish church at Gries, near Bozen (now Bozano). </span><span class="style2">The Coronation of the Virgin</span><span class="style1"> is the main subject of the altarpiece. Pacher used the same subject for the altarpiece of the pilgrimage church of St. Wolfgang. This altarpiece was not completed until 1481 and is considered his best-known work. He handles light like a northerner, but uses his own version of perspective recession and solidarity of forms (in his</span><span class="style2"> Pope Sixtus II taking leave of St. Laurence</span><span class="style1"> ), showing a strong Italian influence. An altarpiece commissioned in 1484 for the Franciscan Church in Salzburg bears his most famous carving, the </span><span class="style2">Coronation of the Virgin,</span><span class="style1"> of which only the Virgin remains, in situ. Pacher studied </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Mantegna</a></span><span class="style1">'s frescoes in Padua in the 1470s and 1480s. This was a vehicle in transmitting the art of Italy to the north. </span></text>
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<text><span class="style1">eturning to Nuremberg in 1496, he regained citizenship and in 1499 carved scenes from the Passion: </span><span class="style2">The Last Supper, Christ on the Mount of Olives </span><span class="style1">and</span><span class="style2"> the Arrest of Christ. The Angelic Salutation</span><span class="style1"> is considered his masterpiece. It is placed inside a wreath of carved wood suspended from an arch in the Church of St. Lorenz in Nuremberg. </span><span class="style2">The Bamberg Altarpiece</span><span class="style1"> was produced for Bamberg Cathedral in 1520-1523. He is considered one of the greatest artists maintaining the late Gothic style in Germany. </span><span class="style4">Tilman Riemenschneider</span><span class="style1"> (c.1460-1531) Riemenschneider was trained as a stone sculptor in Erfurt where he studied alabaster religious sculpture. He spent time in Strasbourg and went to Ulm to learn wood carving, probably under Michael Erhart. He settled in Wurtzburg and refined his treatment of the female body in Eve, a lifesize, sandstone sculpture. He built a funerary monument to Prince Bishop Rudolf von Schrenberg, his patron. His realistic observation created many a beautiful tomb monument and altarpiece and he is viewed as a culmination of Germanic and </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Netherlandish</a></span><span class="style1"> sensibilities. </span></text>
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<text><span class="style1">orn in Breisach, he was known as a Master from Colmar in Alsace. The only painting known to be by his hand is the </span><span class="style2">Virgin in the Rose Bower</span><span class="style1"> (1473) in the Church of St. Martin in Colmar. His prints are well known for their depth of shading. He uses a wide range of parallel hatching, stippling and dotting to achieve the effects of shadowing on the print's surface. In the </span><span class="style2">Temptation of Saint Anthony</span><span class="style1"> (c.1475) he creates demons a la </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Bosch</a></span><span class="style1">. This late Gothic piece has </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Mannerist</a></span><span class="style1"> overtones, with its entwined composition. </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Michelangelo</a></span><span class="style1"> admired his engravings and he copied St. Anthony in pen and watercolor in 1488, at the age of 14 when he was an assistant in Ghirlandaio's studio. </span><span class="style4">Viet Stoss </span><span class="style1"> (c.1440-1533)A German sculptor from Nuremberg, Stoss gave up his citizenship in Nuremberg and moved to Krakow in Poland from 1477-1489. He painted the High Altar for the Church of St. Mary, which has a bizarre and delicate polychrome. Also in Poland, he carved the stone </span><span class="style2">Tomb of King Casimir Jagiello</span><span class="style1"> (1492). </span></text>
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<text><span class="style1">ith assistants, in 1500-1501, he painted an altarpiece on the </span><span class="style2">Passion of Christ</span><span class="style1"> for the </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Dominican</a></span><span class="style1"> Brothers of Frankfurt. The imagery here seems violent and almost brutal. In 1502, after a visit to </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">the Netherlands</a></span><span class="style1">, he painted the </span><span class="style2">Kaisheim Altarpiece</span><span class="style1"> depicting scenes from the Life of Christ and the Virgin, employing Italian decorative motifs. Another altarpiece to note is the Augsburg altarpiece of St. Sebastian where the Italian motifs are used again in the framing of St. Elizabeth and St. Barbara. Holbein the Elder left two portraits of his sons Ambrosius (also a painter) and Hans the Younger. </span><span class="style4">Martin Schongauer</span><span class="style1"> (1450-1491)A German engraver trained by his father Caspar Schongauer who worked in Augsberg. It was here that Martin Schongauer learned to handle the burin (i.e., a short steel engraving tool) with such incredible delicacy. </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Durer</a></span><span class="style1"> first admired his work in Colmar and before Durer, Schongauer was the finest artist Germany had produced. As an engraver, he helped spread German art throughout Europe. </span></text>
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<text><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">hrist</a></span><span class="style1"> is absorbed in a neon orb of light, rising to Heaven. These scenes were on the outer movable wings and would be seen at Christmas, Easter and other feast days. Grunewald's painted wings present, left, </span><span class="style2">Saint Anthony and Saint Paul</span><span class="style1"> </span><span class="style2"> in the Desert</span><span class="style1"> and right, the </span><span class="style2">Temptation of Saint Anthony</span><span class="style1">. The German Renaissance differs from the Italian in the use of color and light. The Germans employed flowing motion, whereas the Italians tended toward static composition in the middle Renaissance. Grunewald never surpassed the brilliance of the </span><span class="style2">Isenheim Altarpiece. </span><span class="style1"> Other memorable paintings are </span><span class="style2">The Virgin of Stuppach</span><span class="style1"> (1519), </span><span class="style2">The Miracle of the Snow </span><span class="style1"> (1517-1519) and </span><span class="style2">The Meeting of St. </span><span class="style8"><a href="#" class="group">Erasmus</a></span><span class="style2"> and St. Maurice.</span><span class="style1"> </span><span class="style4">Hans Holbein, the Elder</span><span class="style1"> (c.1465-1524)Holbein the Elder would have held a more prestigious place in the hierarchy of German painters were it not for his son (</span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Hans Holbein the Younger</a></span><span class="style1">) the famous portraitist. Holbein the Elder painted competent, yet uninspired altarpieces in the northern style, showing a knowledge of Flemish painting.</span></text>
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<text><span class="style1">e met </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Durer</a></span><span class="style1"> in 1520, at which time Durer gave him some of his engravings. Gruenewald's disposition drew him in a different path from Durer. Being familiar with Italian artists of the day, and having a knowledge of scientific proportions did not prevent Grunewald from remaining Gothic in feeling and romantic in nature. He was uninterested in natural landscape and tended to depict the celestial or the infernal. His </span><span class="style2">Crucifixion from the Isenheim Altarpiece</span><span class="style1"> is one of the most memorable depictions in art history. Saint Sebastian (who wards off disease) is to the left of Christ on the altar panels. To his right is Saint Anthony (the miraculous cure). The two saints establish the theme of disease and cure. Grunewald's use of color is brilliant. The Altarpiece first stood in the church of The Order of Saint Anthony from 1512 to 1515 when it was removed to Colmar and elaborated upon with wooden figures carved by Nicholas of Haguenau. The panels from the Altarpiece include the </span><span class="style2">Annunciation, Concert of Angels, Nativity </span><span class="style1">and</span><span class="style2"> Resurrection.</span><span class="style1"> The Resurrection changes in tone from the other panels to surreal, with Christ blazing in his triumph. </span></text>
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<text><span class="style1">t was at this time that he wrote his theoretical treatises, among which are </span><span class="style2">On the Mensuration of Lines and of Whole Bodies</span><span class="style1"> (1525), </span><span class="style2">On the Fortification of Cities, Castles and Small Towns </span><span class="style1"> (1527) and </span><span class="style2">Four Books on the Proportions of the Human Body</span><span class="style1"> (1528). In 1526 Durer began a series of his best portraits, and his most admired painting, </span><span class="style2">The Four Apostles,</span><span class="style1"> a masterpiece in depicting drapery.</span><span class="style4">Matthias Grunewald</span><span class="style1"> (c.1470-1530)Grunewald was a Renaissance man of the first order. Not much is known about his early life. Several accounts presume he might have been born in 1460, making 10 years older than Durer. Other historians put his birthdate in the 1470s. A Lutheran, Grunewald was a court painter for the archbishops as well as an architect and a hydraulic engineer.</span></text>
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<text><span class="style1">is copperplates are legendary, including </span><span class="style8"><a href="#" class="group">St. Jerome</a></span><span class="style2"> in his Study</span><span class="style1"> (1514), </span><span class="style2">Knight, Death and the Devil</span><span class="style1"> (1513) and </span><span class="style2">Melancholia</span><span class="style1"> (1514). Durer admired southern art for its simplified "monumentality," whereby he became a proponent of "precise naturalism." His natural approach to figures in a religious setting is shown in his </span><span class="style2">Four Apostles.</span><span class="style1"> In </span><span class="style8"><a href="#" class="group">Adam and Eve</a></span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group"> </a></span><span class="style1"> he plays with ideal proportions. Between 1515 and 1520 he was heavily engaged in undertakings for </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Emperor Maximilian</a></span><span class="style1">, decorating several pages of his prayer book and getting ideas for his Triumphal Arch and Triumphal Procession. The painting owned now by the Metropolitan Museum of Art in N.Y., done in 1519, is </span><span class="style2">The Virgin and Child with St. Anne,</span><span class="style1"> a theme popular in German art. In 1520-1521, he made a journey through the Low Countries. Every painter came to meet him and learn from him. On his return he went through a period of religious enlightenment, having become a follower of </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Martin Luther</a></span><span class="style1">. </span></text>
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<text><span class="style1">urer was fascinated with Classical ideas transmitted through Renaissance artists. Durer's </span><span class="style2">Apocalypse</span><span class="style1"> woodcut and copper engravings, which first appeared in 1498, showed his Italian Renaissance influence. He was truly the first artist outside of Italy to become an international celebrity and the first northern artist to understand the fundamental aims of the southern Renaissance. He wrote treatises on perspective, fortification and the ideal of human proportions. Most noted for his printmaking, Durer took up painting and produced numerous religious works, including the the pristine </span><span class="style8"><a href="#" class="group">Adoration of the Magi</a></span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group"> </a></span><span class="style1"> (1504) and the famous </span><span class="style2">Paumgartner Altarpiece. </span><span class="style1"> Again in Italy, he painted two panels of </span><span class="style2">Adam and Eve</span><span class="style1"> in 1507 and </span><span class="style2">The Adoration of the Holy Trinity</span><span class="style1"> in 1511. His facility with the burin, a tool used by engravers and then printmakers, gave him a tremendous advantage in rendering minute detail in his prints. In 1511 he completed and published several series of wood engravings begun much earlier, including </span><span class="style2">The Great Passion, The Little Passion, </span><span class="style1">and</span><span class="style2"> The Life of the Virgin. </span></text>
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<text><span class="style1">he warm foreground colors shift to green in the middle and cool blues in the far distance — a Renaissance landscape technique. He is very effective in his dark to light pattern and realism is manifested in the detail of his work.</span><span class="style4">Albrecht Durer </span><span class="style1"> (1471-1528) Durer was considered the "</span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Leonardo</a></span><span class="style1"> of the North." The son of a Hungarian goldsmith, at 15 Durer was apprenticed to Michael Wolgemut, the most famous painter-engraver of the day. He carefully preserved a silverpoint drawing of himself done at the age of 13, early on realizing his importance. In 1490 he set off as a journeyman and ended up in Colmar, the birthplace of </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Martin Schongauer</a></span><span class="style1">, one of Durer's heroes. From Colmar he went to Basel and then back to Nuremberg, where he married in 1493. Durer felt that Northern art was clumsy and cold compared to that of Italy and in 1494 made his first pilgrimage to Italy.</span></text>
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<text><span class="style1">assys was known for his portraiture, mythological scenes, landscape and genre painting that existed side-by-side with religious themes. Antwerp's growth and prosperity and a wealthy merchant's class allowed for new patronage. Massys was a leading Master in 1510. He is the artist at the turning point in Flemish tradition. His </span><span class="style2">St. Anne's Altarpiece</span><span class="style1"> is an orderly grouping of people and stable with architectural elements that lead illogically into the composition. The compression of the composition shows the assimilation of many styles. Portraits of his humanist friends </span><span class="style2">Egidius</span><span class="style1"> (1517) and </span><span class="style8"><a href="#" class="group">Erasmus</a></span><span class="style1"> (1517) are very original showing the sitter engaged in his work, or milieu. </span><span class="style4">Joachim Patenier (Patinir) </span><span class="style1"> (c.1485-1524)Patenier is considered to be the first Flemish landscape painter. He flourished between the years 1515 and 1524. </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Bosch</a></span><span class="style1"> may have influenced his style of painting vistas. Patenier's landscapes are of primary importance; for instance, in </span><span class="style2">Landscape with </span><span class="style8"><a href="#" class="group">St. Jerome</a></span><span class="style2">,</span><span class="style1"> the figure is hidden in the middle ground and aerial perspective is used. </span></text>
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<text><span class="style1">an Leyden was a master of the burin (i.e., a short steel engraving tool). He was able to derive delicate lights, transparent shadows, and recession of planes through aerial perspective. His subject matter was popular genre and biblical subjects. The most famous of his engravings is the brilliant </span><span class="style2">Prodigal Son</span><span class="style1"> (1510-1517). </span><span class="style4">Quentin Massys</span><span class="style1"> (c.1466-1530)Quentin Massys (or Matsys) began a line of Dutch painters. He was trained in the manner of </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Dieric Bouts</a></span><span class="style1"> and became a Master at Antwerp in 1493. He was attracted by the Renaissance style, although he was an inheritor of the medieval traditional style. He is noted for introducing a sense of movement into Northern painting. In this case, he was considered an innovator. He was impressed by </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Leonardo</a></span><span class="style1">'s use of sfumato (i.e., use of smooth and imperceptible transitions between areas of color), a technique he subsequently adopted. </span></text>
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<text><span class="style1">osch's underlying message is always the same: the guilt of sin, and the forgetfulness of the message of </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Christ</a></span><span class="style1">. He sees humans as vain creatures attached to the earthly pleasures. The subject matter is taken from medieval bestiaries, Flemish proverbs and the popular dream books of the day. He paints the false paradise of the world between heaven and hell. A superior narrative painter, Bosch used the impasto technique (i.e., applying oil paint in thick masses). Famous works include: </span><span class="style2">Seven Deadly Sins, The Conjurer, Ship of Fools, Garden of Earthly Delights </span><span class="style1">and</span><span class="style2"> the Prodigal Son.</span><span class="style1"> </span><span class="style4">Lucas Van Leyden</span><span class="style1"> (1494-1533)In 1521 Van Leyden, a major Dutch Renaissance painter and engraver, came in contact with </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Durer</a></span><span class="style1"> and Jan Gossaert, but much of his technique is owed to Bosch. The following paintings show off his delicate engraver's hand: </span><span class="style2">Lot and his Daughters, Moses Striking the Rock, The Card Players </span><span class="style1">and</span><span class="style2"> The Chess Players.</span><span class="style1"> </span></text>
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<text><span class="style1">osch was favoured by Philip of Spain at which time his work inspired a craze for "diableries." His imitators were many. His work combines bizarre invention with symbolic realism. The altarpieces prove him to be a poet of the "nightmarish subconscious." In Bosch's work, the dreaming and waking worlds are intermingled in a seductive way. His work is in the tradition of beast and monster from art history. In </span><span class="style2">The Garden of Earthly Delights,</span><span class="style1"> </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Eve</a></span><span class="style1"> is depicted as the seductress; symbols of doom and evil exist in Paradise. One art historian's opinion is that "erotic temptation is a universal disaster." Bosch utilizes symbolism. His inventiveness and unique vision of the world pluck absurd imagery from reality. He juxtaposes forms creating monstrosities — dislocated elements of real beings are contrasted with perfect birds, fruit and young women. He uses symbols from astrology, sorcery and </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">alchemy</a></span><span class="style1"> to create the intricate paintings so often used in text books. </span></text>
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<text><span class="style4">ichael Colombe</span><span class="style1"> (c.1430-c.1512)The brother of the miniaturist, Jean Colombe, Michael settled in Touraine in 1490 and by 1501 he was the official sculptor of Anne de Bretagne. He built the tomb of Marguerite de Foix and Duke Francois II. The figures were Gothic in feature with Italian decoration. There were four innovative lifesize statues of the Virtues on the corners of the monument. At the age of 80, Michael Colombe completed a high marble relief of St. George. </span><span class="style4">Hieronymous Bosch </span><span class="style1"> (c.1450-1516) History interprets Bosch in many ways. He was a highly original Flemish painter of the late Middle Ages. His art was born of the pessimism of the day, the fear of human fate. He was the son, grandson and nephew of painters, and was married to a wealthy patrician woman. During his lifetime he was lauded and at his death he was referred to as "insignis pictor" (distinguished painter). </span></text>
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<text><span class="style4">utton Place</span><span class="style1"> was begun in 1523 by Sir Richard Weston. The Italianate decorative terracotta detail was imported from Italy. The plan of the house was French with a central court and traditional English gatehouse in the middle of the entrance side. The two new features were: the front door set in the middle of the Hall block, creating symmetry, and the long gallery.</span><span class="style4">Master of Moulins</span><span class="style1"> (fl. 1480-1500)The Master of Moulins was an anonymous French painter who flourished between 1480 and 1500. He was named after the triptych at Moulins Cathedral. The donor was Pierre II, Duke of Bourbon, and his wife, Anne of France. Open, the triptych shows the </span><span class="style2">Madonna and Child Surrounded by Angels.</span><span class="style1"> Closed, it shows the </span><span class="style2">Annunciation.</span><span class="style1"> The breadth and simplicity of the composition are remarkable. It is structured finely and the modeling of forms is delicate and intelligent. The Master of Moulins is the last great painter in the French Gothic style. </span></text>
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<text><span class="style1">t. George's looks more like a cathedral than a chapel. It is one of the last great English church designs before the </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Reformation</a></span><span class="style1">. The flattened, 4-centered arches are used throughout the chapel. It was completed by </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Henry VII</a></span><span class="style1">. </span><span class="style4">Magdalen College at Oxford</span><span class="style1"> dates back to the 15th century perpendicular style. Church towers are a characteristic of this style. Vaulting and window tracery are very ornate and gave masons a challenge. It has the flattened 4-centered arches as in St.George's Chapel. Here, they support pendant vaults, a variation on the fan vault, in which the centers of the fan cone hang in space. At Magdalen College, the 4-centered arches support pendant vaults which end in sculptured tabernacles. </span></text>
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<text><span class="style1">he mansion includes a series of courts, like a monastery or college, utilizing the same design as Christ Church, Oxford. One passes from the Clock Court to the Base Court, then on to </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Queen Anne Boleyn</a></span><span class="style1">'s Gateway which still bears the Wolsey arms in terracotta. Busts of Roman emperors decorate the otherwise traditional facade, which looks much like a medieval castle. The busts, done in "roundels," were the first of their kind done in England by an Italian sculptor. The Great Hall is Gothic with a majestic hammer-beam roof built by Henry VIII after Wolsey's fall. The Tudor carving on the hammer-beam roof had pendant lanterns. Henry died in 1547, leaving the house in its Tudor state. </span><span class="style4">St. George's Chapel, Windsor</span><span class="style1"> was begun in 1474, partly to honor the national saint and partly as a Yorkist dynastic chapel to replace Westminster as a royal burial place. It is perpendicular in aspect, owing to the style of panelling. It was originally designed with a wooden roof, which explains the flattened lierne (a short rib that runs from one main rib of a vault to another) vaults. </span></text>
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<text><span class="style4">enry VII Chapel — Westminster Abbey</span><span class="style1">The ornament covering the surface of the chapel is like an organic growth. The sculpture has a layered quality. The architects were tremendously inventive in their fusion of sculpture and architecture. Two fundamental ideas are involved, one is the fan vault and the other is the pendant. This motif enjoys a long history in English architecture, dating back to medieval times. It originated in timber work, where it was structural, although often used decoratively, and was adopted by stonemasons at Oxford in the mid 15th century. </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Henry VII</a></span><span class="style1">'s chapel is special in that it leaves the impression that it could not be equalled. </span><span class="style4">Hampton Court</span><span class="style1"> was begun in 1514 by Cardinal Wolsey and completed by </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Henry VIII</a></span><span class="style1">. It is considered one of the greatest buildings of the age, built on an enormous scale. Wolsey's household alone numbered nearly 500. Wolsey gave Hampton Court to Henry VIII in 1529, whereby Henry enlarged it even more until 1540. </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Christopher Wren</a></span><span class="style1"> added to it still further under </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">William and Mary</a></span><span class="style1">. </span></text>
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<text><span class="style4">ean Fouquet</span><span class="style1"> (c.1420-1481) Fouquet is known as THE outstanding French artist of the 15th century. He is responsible for the famous </span><span class="style2">Book of Hours of Etienne Chevalier,</span><span class="style1"> the King's Minister of Finance. In 1448, he painted the famous portrait of </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Charles VII</a></span><span class="style1">.</span><span class="style2"> </span><span class="style1"> Having studied in Italy, he combined the </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">architectural backgrounds</a></span><span class="style1"> in perspective with the northern influence in his portrait heads. In 1450, the </span><span class="style2">Melun Diptych,</span><span class="style1"> his most famous panel painting, was produced. On the left side appears Etienne Chevalier, and on the right, the Enthroned Virgin. By 1474 he became a court painter and his shop trained Jean Colombe and Jean Bourdichon. </span><span class="style4">King's College Chapel</span><span class="style1"> in Cambridge is the largest expanse of fan vaulting in the world. It is a "monument to royal piety and patronage." There is absolute balance of walls and roof. Huge perpendicular windows merge with the fan vaulting. The effect is calm, static and austere. The ante-chapel walls are "encrusted with the sculptured badges of Tudor majesty." </span></text>
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<text><span class="style1">ary kneels before the manger where the Christ child glows like neon — a true miracle. The angel soars above the scene, illuminated by the "real" night light. It is the miracle of the tiny child lighting up a dark world, the expression of the supernatural through light. Christian symbolism is carried even further with the simplicity of the egg-shaped faces. Sint Jans attempts to piece the foreground and background together in his paintings. Another tendency is to replace fantastic rock formations with more naturalistic landscape, warm colors and quiet compositions. His works convey a sense of "calm". </span><span class="style4">The Master of Mary of Burgundy</span><span class="style1"> (c.1480) This artist is traceable to the court milieu as early as 1476 and is named for two exquisite Books of Hours, most likely produced for </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Mary of Burgundy</a></span><span class="style1">, daughter of </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Charles the Bold</a></span><span class="style1">. Mary of Burgundy is pictured, reading a book, within the illumination: a very new concept. There is a natural, atmospheric style appearing with this Master, which influenced further manuscripts. </span></text>
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<text><span class="style4">etrus Christus </span><span class="style1"> (c.1410-1472) Born in Ghent, Christus settled in Bruges. He was a Flemish painter who simplified forms. He may have been a student of </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Van Eyck</a></span><span class="style1">, but little is known about his life. It is known that he spent time in Italy and picked up influences there. </span><span class="style2">The Legend of Saints</span><span class="style1"> and </span><span class="style2">Eligius and Godeberta</span><span class="style1"> are his most famous paintings. He was concerned with the structure that underlies an object's appearance. A </span><span class="style2">Portrait of a Young Woman</span><span class="style1"> is another notable painting (c.1446). Here we have an elegant, graceful figure dressed in black velvet and blue with porcelain-like skin. Her face is highlighted with blue shadows. Christus is credited with being the first Flemish painter to use a single vanishing point in an interior. </span><span class="style4">Geertegen tot Sint Jans</span><span class="style1"> (c.1465-1495) Born in Leiden, a student of Van Ouwater, Sint Jans became a lay brother at the monastery of Saint John's in Haarlem. The magical comes into his paintings. His </span><span class="style2">Night Nativity</span><span class="style1"> is a charming painting which takes the subject further even than</span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group"> Fabriano</a></span><span class="style1"> in Italy. </span></text>
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<text><span class="style1">outs' </span><span class="style2">Last Supper</span><span class="style1"> of 1464 uses a single vanishing point and puts the figures in correct relation to the space. It is a rigid, unemotional picture that lacks the energy of other Renaissance interpretations.</span><span class="style4">Hugo van der Goes </span><span class="style1"> (1440-1482) A dean of the Painter's Guild of Ghent from 1468-1475, van der Goes' paintings are subjective and introspective. At the height of his fame he entered a monastery as a lay brother and died there after a mental breakdown. His </span><span class="style2">Portinari Altarpiece,</span><span class="style1"> commissioned by Tommaso Portinari, agent of </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">the Medici</a></span><span class="style1">, conveys a solemn tone, recalling medieval devices by varying the scale of the characters using 3 panels with small scenes in the backgrounds. The adoring shepherds were used by the Italian painter </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Ghirlandaio</a></span><span class="style1">, in one of his own nativity scenes after seeing van der Goes' altarpiece in Florence. </span></text>
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<text><span class="style1">is luminous color is northern, but he shows new vigor in his art owing to Italian influences. His treatment of backgrounds is progressive. In the </span><span class="style2">Shrine of St. Ursula,</span><span class="style1"> a reliquary with painted panels less than three feet high, he undertakes a complex narrative painting set in the gold replica of a Gothic chapel. The </span><span class="style2">Last Judgement Triptych</span><span class="style1"> (1473) employs climbing perspective on the side panels of Heaven and Hell. Memling influenced countless anonymous masters of manuscript illumination. </span><span class="style4">Dieric Bouts</span><span class="style1"> (c.1420-1475) A Flemish painter born in Haarlem, Bouts purported an aesthetic of silence and immobility, his work even conveys a coldness. When he appeared in Louvain, he was a Master, a Burgher and an educated man (1457). He loved to paint beautiful objects and predated the genre painters of the 16th century. His </span><span class="style2">Altarpiece of the Holy Sacrament</span><span class="style1"> was once believed to be the first northern painting in which the use of a single vanishing point in an interior could be demonstrated. (Historians have since credited </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Petrus Christus</a></span><span class="style1"> with this innovation.) </span></text>
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<text><span class="style1">uttressing (masses of solid masonry) was used to support weight. Four minarets were were added in </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">1453</a></span><span class="style1">, when the Turks captured Constantinople. This changed the appearance of the building. Semi-domes and buttresses culminate in a central dome. Famous mosaics grace the interior, which is very colorful with much gold in the paintings. The original dome collapsed in 558 A.D. and was subsequently replaced.</span><span class="style4">Hans Memling</span><span class="style1"> (c.1430-1494)German by birth, Memling became a citizen of Bruges in 1465. He was a painter of order and rational balance, later compared to both </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Fra Angelico</a></span><span class="style1"> and </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Raphael</a></span><span class="style1">. Esteemed by his contemporaries, he painted in the style of </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Rogier van der Weyden</a></span><span class="style1">. His sweet, oftentimes melancholy style suits the late 15th century. Of the pious devotional paintings he produced, his madonnas are perhaps most memorable. He paints Mary with a sweet, angelic face and the Christ child as doll-like. There is a high technical quality to his paintings which makes them among the best preserved from this century. </span></text>
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<text><span class="style1">a Laurana also worked for the courts of Mantua and Pesaro. At Pesaro he transformed the fortress. </span><span class="style7"><a href="#" class="group">Hagia Sophia</a></span><span class="style4"> (Holy Wisdom)</span><span class="style1"> Hagia Sophia, built by </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Justinian</a></span><span class="style1"> in 532 A.D. was turned into a mosque by the Moslems in 1453. It remains one of the most imaginative architectural visions in history. The original building is a radial design put together by two mathematicians: Anthemius of Tralles and Isidorus of Miletos. It is an original and successful structure and the longitudinal structure is like a basilica, with a centralized arrangement of elements. Pendentives (concave, triangular piece of masonry, four of which support a dome erected over a square) were used extensively for the first time in the Hagia Sophia. Domes were constructed of bricks set edge-to-edge, one brick deep. The central dome appears to float in space. </span></text>
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<text><span class="style4">iovanni di Paolo</span><span class="style1"> (1403-c.1482) Di Paolo carried the colorful Sienese painting tradition into the Renaissance. His landscapes and figures echo </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Duccio</a></span><span class="style1">, but his influences include di Giovanni, di Bartolo, Sassetta and</span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group"> Fabriano</a></span><span class="style1">. His pallette included wild colors in the Sienese tradition. The poetic way he treats his subject matter gives a dreamlike quality to the famous works, including </span><span class="style2">Adoration of the Magi,</span><span class="style1"> in the collection of the National Gallery of Art in Washington, D.C., </span><span class="style2">Madonna and Child with Angels</span><span class="style1"> (1426), </span><span class="style2">Miracle of Saint Nicholas of Tolentino</span><span class="style1"> (c. 1455) and </span><span class="style2">Six Scenes from the Life of St. John the Baptist. </span><span class="style1"> </span><span class="style4">Luciano da Laurana</span><span class="style1"> (fl.1465-1480) Da Laurana was an architect from Dalmatia (Yugoslavia) whose masterpiece was at Urbino where he transformed the medieval ducal palace for Duke Federigo da Montefeltro. Da Laurana brilliantly joined two divergent wings, giving the palace aspects of both fortress and country house. It has been noted as an exceptionally beautiful living space, perfect for sumptuous receptions. </span></text>
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<text><span class="style1">he Palazzo Medici was purchased in the 17th century by the Riccardi family. It had a fortress-like exterior, art-filled interiors and an interior courtyard. Michelozzo was responsible for numerous other public and private commissions mostly in Florence. As the Medici family was the most influential family in the city, the palazzo plan he used became the hallmark for Florentine patrician homes. </span><span class="style4">Benozzo Gozzoli </span><span class="style1"> (c.1420-1497) Gozzoli was an assistant to </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Fra Angelico</a></span><span class="style1">. His major work was the continuous fresco of </span><span class="style2">The</span><span class="style1"> </span><span class="style2">Procession of the Magi</span><span class="style1"> in the Medici Chapel, commissioned by Piero di Medici. The cortege is peopled by the Medici family, much like in the annual reenactment of the original biblical procession by the Campagnia de Re Magi. The mural was one of the first incidents of the blending of secular and religious imagery. </span></text>
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<text><span class="style4">ernardo Rossellino</span><span class="style1"> (c. 1409-1464) Bernardo Rossellino came from a family of 15th-century Florentine artists. He was an architect and sculptor. His </span><span class="style2">Tomb of </span><span class="style8"><a href="#" class="group">Leonardo Bruni</a></span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group"> </a></span><span class="style1"> is typical of his work on funerary monuments between 1435 and 1454. Perhaps inspired by </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Alberti</a></span><span class="style1">, it was a wall tomb enclosed in a rounded arch supported on </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Corinthian</a></span><span class="style1"> pillars. His work involves a mixture of Christian and Classical imagery, typical of the mid 15th century. He used the face of the deceased carved from a death mask. </span><span class="style4">Michelozzi Michelozzo (di Bartolomeo)</span><span class="style1"> (1396-1472)Michelozzo was the architect responsible for the Palazzo </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Medici</a></span><span class="style1">, begun in 1444. A "palazzo" to Italians means almost any fair-sized urban building. The Palazzo Medici was Michelozzo's most important urban construction. He was influenced by </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Brunelleschi</a></span><span class="style1"> and Alberti and decorated most of his buildings with ornamental sculpture of his own design. </span></text>
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<text><span class="style4">iero Pallaiuolo</span><span class="style1"> (c.1443-1496) Piero is the brother of </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Antonio</a></span><span class="style1">. The two worked together, almost exclusively, after 1460. They represent a busy Florentine bottega of the day. The work was varied and produced under a common signature. Both brothers were trained as goldsmiths and both worked in a style that required careful detail. In 1469-1470 Piero was asked to paint the </span><span class="style2">Six Virtues</span><span class="style1"> for the council chambers of the Tribunale della Mercanzia in Florence. In 1484 the two brothers were called to Rome to work on the </span><span class="style2">Tomb of Pope Sixtus IV</span><span class="style1"> in the grottoes of </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">St. Peter's</a></span><span class="style1">. They also worked together on the </span><span class="style2">Tomb of Pope Innocent VIII </span><span class="style1"> (1493-1497) also in St. Peter's. The two brothers were influential in keeping Florentine art vital and ever- changing. Although his brother enjoyed greater fame with his engravings, the Pallaiuolo brothers will always be noted together for the joint projects they so brilliantly completed. </span></text>
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<text><span class="style4">ntonio Pallaiuolo</span><span class="style1"> (c.1431-1498) Painter, sculptor and engraver, Pallaiuolo was able to depict nervous movement, linear mobility and spatial complexity, owing to his early training as a goldsmith. He and his brother </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Piero</a></span><span class="style1"> worked together most of their creative lives; however, Antonio is special because of his magnificent engravings, bringing printmaking into the mainstream of art. Antonio's wresting match between Herakles and Antaeus interprets physical conflict realistically. He treated this subject both graphically and in bronze statuette. The facial expressions in both are emotional and very accurate. An impressive masterpiece is his </span><span class="style2">Martyrdom of Saint Sebastian</span><span class="style1"> (1475). From 1466-1480, Antonio designed embroideries for liturgical robes. He is credited with being the artist who made anatomy and landscape earmarks of Florentine art. A large engraving, which revolutionized the artform, </span><span class="style2">The Battle of Nudes</span><span class="style1"> (c.1470), is a study of realistic anatomy. His thin, figures — ecorche — have articulated musculature. With this engraving, printmaking becomes an experimental medium and his work impressed both </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Mantegna</a></span><span class="style1"> and </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Durer</a></span><span class="style1">. Pallaiuolo believed the world was fluid and ever-changing, not static and proscribed as in certain forms of art. He and his brother Piero kept Florentine art fresh. </span></text>
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<text><span class="style1">n his paintings, Uccello became obsessed by perspective. In his </span><span class="style2">Battle of San Romano </span><span class="style1"> (1455-60) for the Palazzo Medici, the soldiers become solid forms carefully laid out on a grid base plan. The action of the battle is reduced to arranging forms of solid geometry in space. The compulsively arranged lances, creating bold diagonals, introduces a tension that accentuates the geometry. </span><span class="style2">Saint George and the Dragon</span><span class="style1"> is a painting (c. 1440) that recalls Uccello's work as a mosaicist. The opulent color and imagery work together to create an unforgettable scene with the dragon, emblazened with red circlets on the wings, looking like a World War II Spitfire airplane, set in a fanciful background. Uccello became a favorite master of the </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Cubists</a></span><span class="style1"> of the early 20th century.</span></text>
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<text><span class="style4">aolo Uccello</span><span class="style1"> (1397-1475)An eccentric character of his day, Uccello was a mosaicist as well as a painter and was considered one of the most skilled and conscientious craftsmen of the time. Most of his work was done in Florence, so he existed within the solid framework of Florentine artists of the 15th century. He was a workshop assistant in the bottega of </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Lorenzo Ghiberti</a></span><span class="style1">. In 1425 he was in Venice working as a Master mosaicist at St. Mark's. His equestrian portrait of </span><span class="style2">Sir John Hawkwood</span><span class="style1"> was intended to take the place of a marble statue. In it he used perspective to make it more of an optical exercise than a painting. The equestrian portrait was followed by commissions to do cartoons (i.e., full-sized sketches) for stained glass windows for the circular cupola at Florence Cathedral, as well as the clock face on the west wall of Florence Cathedral. </span></text>
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<text><span class="style4">ndrea Verrocchio (Andrea di Michele Cioni)</span><span class="style1"> (c.1435-1488)Verrocchio was an Italian sculptor, painter and goldsmith. His versatility was well-known, even for a Florentine. He had a bottega in Florence and was a teacher of </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Leonardo da Vinci</a></span><span class="style1">. His marble sculptures include a </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Medici</a></span><span class="style1"> tomb and a marble cenotaph to Cardinal Niccolo Forteguerri commissioned in 1476. He revealed his tremendous talent in his contribution to the sculpture at Or San Michele. His </span><span class="style2">Christ and St. Thomas</span><span class="style1"> grouping was outrageous in its boldness with the saint's figure standing out from the niche, having his back half turned to the observer. He reinterpreted </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Donatello</a></span><span class="style1">'s </span><span class="style2">David,</span><span class="style1"> depicting the conquering hero as a young boy, clad in leather apron, arm on his hip, confidently lording over the head of Goliath. His equestrian tribute to Bartolomeo Colleoni, </span><span class="style2">Gattemelata,</span><span class="style1"> is set imposingly on a very high pedestal, both horse and rider depicted emotionally as figures of action and strength. Verrocchio died before the </span><span class="style2">Gattemelata</span><span class="style1"> was completed by the sculptor Alessandro Leopardi. During his lifetime, Verrocchio was noted as an efficient, active and intelligent workshop director. Leonardo was one of the many Italian artists who studied with him. </span></text>
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<text><span class="style1">ate in his career, he met </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Rogier van der Weyden</a></span><span class="style1">, then working for the Este family, who taught him northern techniques of luminosity. Della Francesca's later oils exhibit his mastery of this medium.</span><span class="style4">Domenico del Ghirlandaio</span><span class="style1"> (1449-1494) Ghirlandaio painted for a solid constituency of bankers and merchants. He and his two brothers set up a bottega (i.e., shop or workshop) that became very active under this middle class and their frescoes were the most popular in Florence in the 1480s- 1490s. Most Florentine Cathedrals have a Ghirlandaio altarpiece. Domenico's work is characterized by one point perspective and a clear organization of masses. He used the Florentine people as onlookers in sacred scenes and also introduced the secularization of sacred images. In 1481-82, Domenico became one of the team of painters to decorate the Vatican's Sistine Chapel. He distinguished himself as a portraitist with his </span><span class="style2">Giovanna Tornabuoni </span><span class="style1">and the</span><span class="style2"> Old Man and his Grandson.</span><span class="style1"> His awareness of Flemish art is obvious in the latter portrait.</span></text>
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<text><span class="style4">iero della Francesca</span><span class="style1"> (c.1416-1492) Della Francesca was the greatest Tuscan painter of the mid 15th century. He strived for a mathematical basis in all of his paintings. He had a knowledge of form studied from </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Masaccio</a></span><span class="style1">, a knowledge of light and color from </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Fra Angelico</a></span><span class="style1"> and an understanding of the principles of space and perspective from </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Alberti</a></span><span class="style1">. Della Francesca enjoyed a long and fruitful career, travelling all over Italy to complete commissions. He went from his home town of Borgo San Sepolcro to Urbino, from Urbino to Ferrara, then to Rimini, Arezzo. On a visit to Rome, he decorated the chamber of </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Pius II</a></span><span class="style1">, after which he went on to Umbria and Perugia. He is best known for his double portrait of </span><span class="style2">Federigo da Montefeltro and Battista Sforza</span><span class="style1"> done during a visit to Urbino. Two of his other very famous works are the fresco of the </span><span class="style2">Resurrection</span><span class="style1"> for Borgo San Sepolcro Cathedral where </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Christ</a></span><span class="style1"> appears in early morning light as a Roman statue, one foot still in the sarcophagus. The rendering of the forms in geometric space is remarkable. His frescoes in San Francesco in Arezzo (1453-54) show his mathematical penchant. </span></text>
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<text><span class="style4">uca Della Robbia</span><span class="style1"> (1400-1482)Della Robbia, a Florentine sculptor and ceramicist, is famed as the inventor of glazed terra cotta, usually white figurines on a deep blue background. He introduced a technique for producing architectural sculpture in terra cotta. It was an inexpensive way of using decorative sculpture. The work eventually became polychromatic and developed into a family industry. Aside from his fame as a ceramicist, Della Robbia enjoyed a tenure as one of the leading Florentine marble sculptors of the early and middle Renaissance. His most famous marble work is the </span><span class="style2">Cantoria</span><span class="style1"> (Musician's Gallery) for the Cathedral of Florence. The Cantoria consists of music-making angels in relief supported on consoles with added reliefs between them. Della Robbia is responsible for the lunettes, in glazed terra cotta, on the doors of the north and south sacristies of the Florence Cathedral and the figures in roundels in the Pazzi Chapel. Charming decorative motifs are his hallmark, including his famous "Della Robbia Wreath" of fruit, nuts, flowers and leaves. </span></text>
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<text><span class="style4">tefano Sassetta </span><span class="style1"> (c.1392-1450)Sassetta is considered one of the greatest early Sienese painters. He worked on the </span><span class="style2">Life of Saint Francis</span><span class="style1"> after </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Saint Francis</a></span><span class="style1"> died. The work was done in a visionary quality more Franciscan than the sombre ones by </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Giotto</a></span><span class="style1">. He mingles a conservatism in his treatment of architecture with a delight in the slender International Gothic figures. There is a dreamlike quality to his pictures. Sassetta's masterpiece was the double-sided altarpiece of 1397-1444, for S. Francesco, Borgo S. Sepolcro. </span><span class="style4">Jacopo della Quertia</span><span class="style1"> (1374-1431)Della Quertia, born in Siena, was considered the only first-rank non-Florentine sculptor of the 15th century. His </span><span class="style2">Expulsion from The Garden of Eden</span><span class="style1"> is sculpted in shallow-relief; the heavily-muscled bodies were considered progressive compared to </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Ghiberti</a></span><span class="style1">. Della Quertia was an astute observer of the human body and its movement. His reliefs seem capable of breaking out of the surface. </span></text>
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<text><span class="style4">anni di Banco </span><span class="style1">(c.1384-1421)A Florentine sculptor, di Banco explores the antique, in </span><span class="style2">Quatro Santi Coronati for San Michele.</span><span class="style1"> The four figures are the patron saints of the Florentine guild of sculptors, architects and masons. He deals successfully with the emergence of sculpture from the architecture, utilizing the spatial recess of a niche. He is considered a transitional Florentine sculptor who vied with </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Donatello</a></span><span class="style1"> and </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Ghiberti</a></span><span class="style1"> for the statuary at Or San Michele. His</span><span class="style2"> Saint Luke</span><span class="style1"> appears in Gothic drapery, exhibiting a classical spirit. Porta della Mandorla was his greatest project. He created a magnificent narrative relief of the </span><span class="style2">Assumption of the Virgin</span><span class="style1"> (1414-21). </span><span class="style4">Lorenzo Monaco</span><span class="style1"> (c.1370-1424)Monaco was a Sienese painter and illuminator. He prepared and partially painted a Gothic frame and panel by</span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group"> Fabriano</a></span><span class="style1">, </span><span class="style2">The Adoration of the Magi.</span><span class="style1"> He entered a monastery in Florence where he painted the </span><span class="style2">Adoration of the Virgin</span><span class="style1"> (1424) and the </span><span class="style2">Journey of the Magi</span><span class="style1"> in a late 14th-century Gothic style. Monaco utilized the imagery of fantasy and the realism of International Gothic emerging into Renaissance style. </span></text>
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<text><span class="style4">eon Alberti</span><span class="style1"> (1404-1472)Leon Alberti was the son of an ancient family banished from Florence. He studied in Padua and served the papal court in a secretarial post from 1432 to 1464. Alberti, a scholar and architect, is credited with being the first to investigate true scientific perspective in his treatise </span><span class="style2">Della Pittura</span><span class="style1"> (1435). He takes linear perspective, discovered by </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Brunelleschi</a></span><span class="style1">, one step further. Alberti's writing and theorizing influenced many generations of artists. An intellectual who made antiquity his way of life, he said that "the painted surface is a cross section of the visual pyramid." He attached tremendous importance to numbers in architecture. (He was influenced by the philosophy of </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Pythagoras</a></span><span class="style1">.) Some of his famous works are: Church of San Francesco, Temple Malatestiano, Rimini (1446-1455); the Palace of Giovanni di Paolo Rucellia (1446-1451); S. Maria Novella, Florence (1456-1470). </span></text>
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<text><span class="style4">entile da Fabriano</span><span class="style1"> (c.1370-1427)Fabriano, a contemporary of </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Masaccio</a></span><span class="style1">, synthesized Italian art styles. His masterpiece in the international style is the </span><span class="style2">Adoration of the Magi</span><span class="style1"> (1423). His aim was to create a gorgeous surface, with rich flutings and arabesques. The detail in his costumery was perfect. He mastered foreshortening and was the first proponent of a night time nativity scene where the light source has been introduced. </span><span class="style4">Domenico Venezianno</span><span class="style1"> (c.1420-1461)Venezianno was a Venetian painter who further explored </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Fra Angelico</a></span><span class="style1">'s understanding of light and color. His </span><span class="style2">St. Lucy Altarpiece</span><span class="style1"> is rendered in a partly Gothic partly Renaissance courtyard. He used one-point perspective with a sensitivity to light and color and no dark shadows. He pursued, with fanaticism, the colors of marble in shadow. </span><span class="style2">St. John the Baptist in the Desert</span><span class="style1"> is painted as a nude young man changing clothes in the wilderness. </span></text>
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<text><span class="style1">he Baptistry doors reflect the Gothic style of the day, with the images inside quatrefoil panels; whereas the Paradise doors exhibit the </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">humanism</a></span><span class="style1"> of the Renaissance, utilizing the laws of perspective. The Paradise doors have a smoothness and grace of motion in the reliefs. The nude Isaac in the "Sacrifice of Isaac" illustrates Ghiberti's knowledge of movement and the beauty of the human form a generation before Donatello's bronze </span><span class="style2">David.</span><span class="style1"> Assimilated in his reliefs are the spatial devices of </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Donatello</a></span><span class="style1"> and the architectural perspective of </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Brunelleschi</a></span><span class="style1">.</span><span class="style4">Andrea del Castagno</span><span class="style1"> (c.1421-1457)Andrea del Castagno studied with </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Masaccio</a></span><span class="style1"> and worked with </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Fra Filippo Lippi</a></span><span class="style1">. He utilized perspective and strong, imposing human figures. His forte was creating the illusion of 3-dimensionality with figures. His </span><span class="style2">Last Supper</span><span class="style1"> was painted in the Convent of Sant' Appolonia in Florence. He painted "a damnatio" of </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Cosimo de Medici</a></span><span class="style1">'s adversaries hanging by their heels (1440) at the Palazzo del Podesta in Florence. His portraiture led the way for secular painting, although he is remembered for his frescoes in religious buildings. He was struck down by the plague at the age of 36. </span></text>
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<text><span class="style4">orenzo Ghiberti</span><span class="style1"> (c.1378-1453) Ghiberti was a sculptor, goldsmith, writer and architect from Florence. He was an older contemporary of </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Donatello</a></span><span class="style1"> and </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Brunelleschi</a></span><span class="style1">. His most famous works are the bronze doors for the Baptistry in Florence. In his </span><span class="style2">Commentaries,</span><span class="style1"> written towards the end of his life, he includes his autobiography as well as the definitive treatises on optical knowledge and Renaissance learning of his day. It elaborates on his work in such a way that there there has been no dispute over authenticity, as with other artists. </span><span class="style2">Commentaries</span><span class="style1"> is also a rich source for information about this period in art history. Ghiberti left Florence in 1400, to return in 1401 to enter the competition, which he won, for the doors of the Baptistry. The doors contained 28 scenes from the New Testament and were finished in 1424. In 1425, he was commissioned to do another pair of doors, the </span><span class="style2">Gates of Paradise.</span><span class="style1"> Stylistically, the doors were very different. </span></text>
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<text><span class="style4">ra Filippo Lippi</span><span class="style1"> (c.1406-1461)Filippo Lippi, born in Florence, joined the Carmelites at age 8. He took his orders at the age of 15 and was first recorded as a painter in 1431, at the age of 25. He watched </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Masaccio</a></span><span class="style1"> work and was influenced by the master. Lippi's </span><span class="style2">Annunciation</span><span class="style1"> was done while he was rector and abbot of the parish of S. Querico near Florence. The perspective view of the closed garden is a symbol of Mary's virginity. The light and shade of the deep space is a technique he learned from Masaccio; however Lippi used more color. In a tondo (a round painting for a private home) of 1452, Lippi gracefully painted a Florentine home of the 15th century. His elegant world departs from Masaccio's severity. While chaplain of the convent of St. Margherita, he met Lucretzia Buti, a nun, who bore him a son, Filippino (also a painter). It is believed that Lucretzia Buti was the model for many of Lippi's famous madonnas. His last commission was with his son. The job was to decorate the apse of the cathedral in Spoleto with frescoes. </span></text>
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<text><span class="style4">ra Angelico (Guido di Petro)</span><span class="style1"> (c.1400-1455)Guido di Petro (or Fra Giovanni da Fiesole) was born in Tuscany. He and his brother Benedetto entered the </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Dominican</a></span><span class="style1"> convent in Fiesole, where he took his name Fra Giovanni da Fiesole. From 1432 we have records of him as a painter. Most likely his training was as a miniaturist and illuminator. His colors are delicate and he tends towards the preciousness of illumination. He was the greatest master of landscape of the 1430s, being receptive to new ideas, particularly from Florence. He painted altarpieces utilizing the technique of spatial organization identified with Florence. His silhouettes were sturdy and majestic, the figures free-standing in space. His architectural decor shows how ambitious he was at replicating the building of the day. As a man of the cloth he was nearly sanctified. He exhibited the Renaissance joy in the loveliness of "created" things and things "transfigured" by faith.</span></text>
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<text><span class="style1">he emergence of science itself as a viable field of study was a Renaissance phenomenon. Brunelleschi understood Roman construction and engineering problems were not difficult for him. He designed the enormous dome for the unfinished Cathedral of Florence as well as the machinery to do the work. He was able to raise the centre of the dome, making it more stable with a thin double shell around a skeleton of 24 ribs, only 8 visible from the exterior. Brunelleschi anchored the structure at the top with a heavy lantern, stabilizing the structure. His was the architecture of </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">humanism</a></span><span class="style1">. In the Foundling Hospital in Florence, the horizontals were emphasised. Brunelleschi had a passion for mathematical proportions. Other works that exhibit his genius are Santo Spirito and San Lorenzo, Florentine basilican churches. The classical ideals of the 1:2 proportions were used consistently. His Pazzi Chapel (1440-1461) has a round dome on pendentives. The barrel vaults are divided into large panels of "pietra serena" moldings set against plaster. Roundels included glazed terra cotta statues of the apostles. This particular building is exquisite in its harmony and grace. The color scheme is simple and creates contrasts. </span></text>
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<text><span class="style1">onatello chose to depict men of courage and vision, intelligence and ambition, frequently of humble origin. His equestrian statue </span><span class="style2">Gattamelata</span><span class="style1"> ("slick cat" — 1443), produced by Erasmoda Narni in Venice shows the Roman grandeur of the mounted leader, the condottiere. It is a free-standing monumental work which frees sculpture from architecture. Donatello was in Padua for 10 years, after which he returned to Florence in 1453. His late works involved distortion and exaggeration and seemed to return to Medieval piety in sculpture. His </span><span class="style2">Mary Magdelene</span><span class="style1"> shows the repentant saint in old age, denying her her once-famous beauty. </span><span class="style4">Filippo Brunelleschi</span><span class="style1"> (c.1377-1446)Brunelleschi was a Florentine sculptor and architect originally trained as a goldsmith. He was born in the Middle Ages but his innovations categorise him as the earliest modern architect, one of the innovators of the Renaissance. His early work as a sculptor, where he was rivalled by </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Ghiberti</a></span><span class="style1"> and </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Donatello</a></span><span class="style1">, is secondary to his work as an architect. He was the man who introduced "true linear" perspective, where the illusion of distance becomes mathematical and precise. The horizon line corresponds to the viewer's eye-level. </span></text>
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<text><span class="style1">onatello was able to capture the essence of the "whole human being," a Renaissance sensibility. He showed the mastery of weight shift in the standing figure, called "ponderation." He used a form of rationalized perspective, a pictorial perspective whereby a viewer looks into a picture like a window. The </span><span class="style2">Feast of Herod</span><span class="style1"> and the bronze </span><span class="style2">David</span><span class="style1"> were produced after his visit to Rome where he studied Roman statuary. He spent time with the architect </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Brunelleschi</a></span><span class="style1">, the two renewing their acquaintance with classical Roman art. The bronze </span><span class="style2">David</span><span class="style1"> is a youthful warrior and is the first free-standing nude of the early Renaissance. Donatello re-invented the classical nude, giving it a Renaissance twist with the introspective gaze, the "self" being emphasised. </span></text>
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<text><span class="style1">fter leaving Ghiberti's shop, Donatello worked on the decoration of Florence Cathedral for many years and his seated figure of </span><span class="style2">St. John the Evangelist</span><span class="style1"> brought him fame. It had been made after his carved sculpture of </span><span class="style2">David.</span><span class="style1"> After creating the "carved" </span><span class="style2">David,</span><span class="style1"> Donatello broke away from the international school of thought and began experimenting with a new Renaissance style that became identified with him for historical purposes. His San Michele commission involved several sculpted figures. Donatello sculpted </span><span class="style2">St. George</span><span class="style1"> for one of the niches and in order to integrate the statue with the building, he carved a low relief into the base of the statue, depicting St.George and the Dragon. The relief exhibits the Renaissance attention to perspective. His </span><span class="style2">St. Mark,</span><span class="style1"> for San Michele, shows body movement evident under the drapery. The technique was to first model the body in clay and then add drapery with actual cloth dipped in diluted clay, reminiscent of Greek sculpture from the 5th century. </span></text>
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<text><span class="style1">asaccio's heroic style denied the opulence of gold, jewel-like color and sentimental detail. In </span><span class="style2">The Tribute Money,</span><span class="style1"> the apostles' cloaks give them a sculptural sense — the composition does not rely on line but on mass. He believed that the "light source" created the real space, casting shadows in three dimensions. In Masaccio's </span><span class="style2">Expulsion,</span><span class="style1"> </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Adam and Eve</a></span><span class="style1"> show the emotions of guilt and grief. He dealt with the mysteries of Catholicism in an early Renaissance manner. The sacrifice of Christ in the name of the Father was to redeem man from sin and death. </span><span class="style4">Donatello (Donato di Betto Bardi)</span><span class="style1"> (c.1386-1466) The most famous and influential Florentine sculptor of the 15th century, Donatello exerted his influence on sculptors of his generation as well as painters. He was one of the artists who strongly influenced the young </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Michelangelo</a></span><span class="style1">, who was taught by one of Donatello's students (Bertoldo). Donatello worked for his colleague </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Lorenzo Ghiberti</a></span><span class="style1">. </span></text>
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<text><span class="style4">onrad Witz</span><span class="style1"> (c.1400-1446) German by birth, Witz moved to Switzerland and joined the artists' guild in Basel. Some of Witz's work survived the Protestant scourge of religious iconography which shows that he was independent in his style. He was a nature painter: </span><span class="style2">Miraculous Draft of Fish</span><span class="style1"> is a fine example from the altarpiece of the Cathedral of Geneva. His powers of observation were unrivalled. His specialty was painting water and its nuances. </span><span class="style4">Masaccio (Tomaso di ser Giovanni)</span><span class="style1"> (1401-1428)Masaccio was born in San Giovanni near Florence. His nickname was "Ugly Tom." With </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Donatello</a></span><span class="style1"> and </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Brunelleschi</a></span><span class="style1"> he founded the "heroic style" in 15th-century Florence which existed side-by-side with the international Gothic style. Masaccio inherited the tradition of </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Giotto</a></span><span class="style1">. He was a genius, always completely devoted to his art, who unfortunately died very young and was never appreciated in his time. Masaccio was considered rigidly grand and cold in his insistence on consistent geometry and illumination. He was later praised by </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Alberti</a></span><span class="style1"> for being able to create a sense of mass existing in space. </span></text>
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<text><span class="style2">he Tres Riches Heures</span><span class="style1"> was not finished in either the Duke's lifetime or the Limbourgs'. The work was finished posthumously by Jean Colombe. </span><span class="style2">The Belles Heures,</span><span class="style1"> also known as the </span><span class="style2">Heures d'Ailly</span><span class="style1"> (1403-1413) is notable for the elegant silhouettes, rich colors and decorative linear effects which smack of Sienese art and even Eastern art. </span><span class="style2">The Tres Riches Heures</span><span class="style1"> is done in the international style, representing as accurately as possible the world of appearances and the activities of men. Genre subjects appear in religious texts of the day. Books of hours were coveted possessions of the Northern aristocracy. </span><span class="style4">The Rohan Master</span><span class="style1"> (c.1410)The Rohan Master is identified with the </span><span class="style2">Grandes Heures de Rohan.</span><span class="style1"> This manuscript is characterized by macabre expressionism and was made for Yolande of Aragon. The style is original but the origin is unknown. There are particularly gruesome, detailed depictions of death,particularly one full-page illustration of a dying man, with Christ looking down on the scene. The compositions are bold for manuscript illumination, and the drawing is strong, more proficient than </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">the Limbourgs</a></span><span class="style1">. </span></text>
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<text><span class="style1">oseph is seen fashioning a mousetrap, symbol of the mission of Christ as bait in the world to catch the devil. Campin undertakes a thorough humanising of a religious theme. The three panels are set in a middle class courtyard, a house interior and a Flemish shop, respectively. Sacred figures appear without haloes. Campin takes a step further in the secularization of art.</span><span class="style4">The Limbourg Brothers (Pol, Harmann and Hennequin)</span><span class="style1"> (all fl. 1400-1415) The Limbourg Brothers were manuscript illuminators. They were the sons of a sculptor from Nijmegen, Arnold van Limbourg. After the death of their father, the two younger brothers were apprenticed to a goldsmith in Paris. In the year 1402, Pol and Hennequin were working in Dijon and were attached to the Burgundian court in the service of </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Philip the Bold</a></span><span class="style1"> and </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">John the Fearless</a></span><span class="style1">. In 1410, all three brothers were associated with the court of Duc de Berry. Two famous illuminated manuscripts can definitely be attributed to the Limbourg brothers, they are the </span><span class="style2">Belles Heures</span><span class="style1"> (housed at the Cloisters, N.Y.C.) and most famously, the </span><span class="style2">Tres Riches Heures</span><span class="style1"> of the Duc de Berry, considered their masterpiece. </span></text>
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<text><span class="style4">aster of Flemalle — Robert Campin</span><span class="style1"> (c.1374-1444) Robert Campin was a Flemish painter who settled in Tournai where he became a Master in 1406 and a Burgher in 1410. It has been verified, without a shadow of a doubt, that Campin is the famous Master of Flemalle, one of the innovative artists of the Flemish School. It is only in recent years that his importance as a painter has been realised. The </span><span class="style2">Merode Altarpiece,</span><span class="style1"> a triptych that was housed in the Cloisters but which is now in the Metropolitan Museum of Art, is the masterpiece most identified with Campin. It was long the possession of the princes of Merode. Campin is noted for being the Flemish painter who broke away from the Gothic International Style to opt for a more refined representation of objects and of life. He seems indifferent to perspective, but his poetic use of iconography and picturesque detail is remarkable. Interiors are finished in the minutest detail, as in the </span><span class="style2">Merode Altarpiece.</span><span class="style1"> The Annunciation panel (of the altarpiece) depicts, through the use of subtle symbolism, Mary's purity and divine mission. </span></text>
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<text><span class="style1">is major themes were the Crucifixion and Pieta. </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Christ</a></span><span class="style1"> suffers as a man in Rogier's work. The emotionality and passionate sorrow can be seen in the </span><span class="style2">Escorial Deposition</span><span class="style1"> (1435). The curving rhythms and interlocking forms create a Gothic spirit, often copied from this famous painting. There is a shallow stage with maximum action in a small space. The facial expressions of the figures as well as their postures communicate anguish and suffering. Rogier made use of pictorial composition with the abstraction of light and dark forms. None of his work is signed. He was not interested in genre painting or in the grandeur of nature — his work concentrates on religious fervour, where the world is a stage for Christianity. Rogier's </span><span class="style2">Calvary Triptych</span><span class="style1"> (c.1438- 1440) shows a blend of new ideas: the old use of a continuous landscape and the new inclusion of images of the donors (begun by </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">van Eyck</a></span><span class="style1">) within the painted space. The figures are stocky, with slender Christ and angels. The high drama is created by the bizarrely contorted "blue" angels floating above the scene. Rogier van der Weyden had a profound influence on later artists of the 15th century.</span></text>
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<text><span class="style4">ubert van Eyck</span><span class="style1"> (c.1370-1426) Hubert van Eyck was trained as a miniaturist. He is believed to be the sculptor of the frame for the </span><span class="style2">Ghent Altarpiece.</span><span class="style1"> The frame is believed to have been a two- storied, richly-carved reliquary. An inscription in Latin says that the work was "begun" by Hubert. The frame most likely was destroyed by Protestant iconoclasts around 1566. </span><span class="style2">The Annunciation,</span><span class="style1"> attributed to Hubert van Eyck, is housed at the Metropolitan Museum of Art in New York. It is archaic in its concept with oblique perspective and a high viewpoint. Delicate while flowers appear growing from a wall. These flowers also appear in the </span><span class="style2">Ghent Altarpiece.</span><span class="style1"> </span><span class="style4">Rogier van der Weyden</span><span class="style1"> (c.1399-1464) Rogier was born in Tournai, son of a master cutler. He had a tremendous impact on northern painting in the 15th century. As a young man, he was a student of </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Campin</a></span><span class="style1"> and </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Van Eyck</a></span><span class="style1">. He tended to eliminate secondary symbolism in his work, and chose to depict human action and drama in fluid compositions. </span></text>
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<text><span class="style1">is realism was saturated with symbolism and the use of several perspectives. He used "trompe l'oeil" (fool the eye) on the interior panels of the altarpiece. Portraits of the donors, Josse Vijdt and his wife, are shown in prayer. Van Eyck's "miracle" is in his humanism, forcing people to mingle with saints. It is interesting to see the inclusion of laymen in the altarpiece, as well as the figures of </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Adam and Eve</a></span><span class="style1"> shown nude — the earliest nudes in northern painting. Van Eyck revived the art of private portraiture — he painted his donors. The anonymity of the artists of the Middle Ages is seen breaking away here. The artist is coming forward as an individual talent, with a name and a face. Portraiture forces the person (subject) to "look" at us, or at himself in a mirror. All of Van Eyck's paintings are rife with Christian symbolism, making them somewhat formal. They are unforgettable because of his genius as an illuminator. He takes seriously the responsibility of making the image true in detail and precious without being sentimental. For the most part, Van Eyck was not imitated. Flemish painting tended to change after him.</span></text>
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<text><span class="style1">an Eyck's most famous painting is the altarpiece of the </span><span class="style2">Mystic Lamb: the Ghent Altarpiece.</span><span class="style1"> The polyptych breaks with the established international style by its size: over 9 feet by 15 feet. The collaboration on the altarpiece by Jan and his brother </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Hubert</a></span><span class="style1"> is arguable. (Some art historians dispute the fact that there ever was a Hubert van Eyck, a controversy begun in 1930 which has never been laid to rest.) We are certain, however, that Jan was the painter of this magnificent work. It is a folding altarpiece that, with unfolding, reveals new subjects in sequence. It is a representation of the Medieval conception of the redemption of man. It employs stylistic elements of many schools: a Burgundian treatment of the drapery, Italian perspective and the Northern use of opulent, jewel-like colors. The use of the new medium of oil paint shows its merits. (The Flemish had the flax for making linen and fine cloth. The oily by-product of the cloth, linseed oil, became the accepted reagent for the rich tempera colors, creating an exciting new painting medium for the northern artists.)Naturalism, </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">humanism</a></span><span class="style1"> and the precise rendering of figures puts Jan van Eyck in a class of his own. </span></text>
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<text><span class="style1">OME PROMINENT PAINTERS, SCULPTORS, ARCHITECTS AND WORKS OF ART OF THE RENAISSANCE (1400-1600)(For a more comprehensive listing see "ART" grid for each country)</span><span class="style4">Jan Van Eyck</span><span class="style1"> (c.1390-1464)Early in his artistic career, Jan van Eyck was in the service of John of Bavaria, Count of Holland, at the Hague (1422-1424). At the Count's death, Jan entered the service of </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Philip the Good</a></span><span class="style1">, Duke of Burgundy (1425). Van Eyck was sent on diplomatic missions to Spain and Portugal and came back to settle in Bruges (1430), where he married in 1434. </span></text>
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<text><span class="style1">RENCH "SCHOOL OF </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">FONTAINEBLEAU</a></span><span class="style1">" STYLE A strong Italian influence shows itself in French Renaissance architecture Among the most famous buildings of the time are: Chateau de Gaillon c.1501+ Chateau de Chambord c.1520+ Fontainebleau c.1530+ </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">The Louvre</a></span><span class="style1"> c.1550+</span></text>
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<text><span class="style1">NGLISH TUDOR STONE HOUSES Great stone houses, often replete with medieval-style battlements, crenallated parapets and ornamental brick chimneys Among the most well-known are </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Hampton Court</a></span><span class="style1"> c.1515+ Compton Wynyates c.1520+ (always good for a calendar!) Burghley House c.1550+ (with its truly awesome collections) and, by the great Tudor architect </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Robert Smythson</a></span><span class="style1"> (1536-1614) </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Longleat</a></span><span class="style1"> c.1570+ Hardwick Hall c.1590+ (a window washer's nightmare!) </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Wollaton Hall </a></span><span class="style1"> c.1580+</span></text>
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<text><span class="style1">NGLISH PERPENDICULAR A peculiarly English elaboration of the Gothic style in architecture that combined great height with strikingly fantastic fan vaulting. The most famous examples are </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">King's College Chapel</a></span><span class="style1">, Cambridge (c.1508+), </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Henry VII Chapel</a></span><span class="style1">, Westminster Abbey (c.1512) and </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">St. George's Chapel</a></span><span class="style1">, Windsor (c.1481+)ENGLISH TUDOR "BLACK AND WHITE" BUILDINGS Timber-framed houses in a boldly patterned style Little Moreton Hall c.1559+ is the largest, most famous and picturesque of these</span></text>
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<text><span class="style1">MALLER, MORE HUMAN-SCALED ECLECTIC BUILDINGS </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Filippo Brunelleschi</a></span><span class="style1"> c.1377-1446 was the first great architect of the Renaissance Gone were the enormous, overpowering </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Gothic structures</a></span><span class="style1"> Back came the Roman dome (replacing the Gothic tower) Brunelleschi's dome for Florence Cathedral was the first of the great Renaissance domes. </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Michelangelo</a></span><span class="style1">'s (1475-1564) dome for </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">St. Peter's</a></span><span class="style1"> in Rome was the most magnificent of the Renaissance Greek columns (esp. </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Corinthian</a></span><span class="style1"> columns with their acanthus leaves) abounded as did rounded </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Roman or Romanesque arches</a></span><span class="style1"> Brunelleschi c.1377-1446, </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Bramante</a></span><span class="style1"> 1444-1514 and </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Palladio</a></span><span class="style1"> 1518-1580 ("Palladian" refers to his style) were the greatest architects of the Renaissance</span></text>
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<text><span class="style1">IFE-LIKE, OFTEN NUDE STATUARY for the first time since antiquity </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Donatello</a></span><span class="style1">'s (c.1386-1466) </span><span class="style2">David</span><span class="style1"> is considered the greatest piece of sculpture since </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Praxiteles</a></span><span class="style1"> in ancient Greece </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Lorenzo Ghiberti</a></span><span class="style1"> (1378-1453), famous for his glorious bronze doors on the Baptistry in Florence </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Luca della Robbia</a></span><span class="style1"> (1400-1482), famous for his splendid glazed terracotta busts and figures </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Michelangelo</a></span><span class="style1"> (1475-1564), whose </span><span class="style2">Pieta, David </span><span class="style1">and</span><span class="style2"> Moses</span><span class="style1"> are considered the finest pieces of sculpture of all time, are, with Donatello the four greatest sculptors of the Renaissance - and they all worked in Florence! </span></text>
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<text><span class="style1">ABULOUS DETAIL Jan van Eyck (esp. in his </span><span class="style2">Arnolfini Wedding</span><span class="style1"> ) and </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Roger van der Weyden</a></span><span class="style1"> c.1399-1464 began the tradition of fabulous northern detail, a tradition carried on by such giants as </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Bosch</a></span><span class="style1">, </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Durer</a></span><span class="style1"> and </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Holbein</a></span><span class="style1">BALANCED,GEOMETRIC,"GOLDEN SECTION" SHAPES </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Leonardo da Vinci</a></span><span class="style1"> (1452-1519) who illustrated a dissertation by Luca Pacioli, </span><span class="style2">De Divina Proportione</span><span class="style1"> (1509), and </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Raphael</a></span><span class="style1"> (1481-1520) both exhibited </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Apollonian</a></span><span class="style1"> perfection in their drawings and paintings (See Medieval V Essay "</span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">The Fibonacci Series</a></span><span class="style1">")ILLUMINATED MANUSCRIPTS WITH PERSPECTIVE </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">The Limbourg brothers</a></span><span class="style1">' (fl.1400-1415) </span><span class="style2">Tres Riches Heures</span><span class="style1"> c.1415 is considered by many to be the most fabulous illuminated manuscript of all time.</span></text>
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<text><span class="style1">ATURE AND LANDSCAPES man's environment </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Fra Angelico</a></span><span class="style1"> c.1400-1455 was the first to explore this new area </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Sandro Botticelli</a></span><span class="style1"> c.1444-1510 was probably the best "plant man" (He is also known for his see-through negligee technique.) </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group"> Pieter Bruegel</a></span><span class="style1"> c.1526-1564 was the first northern landscape painter he is especially famous for his peasant scenesOIL PAINTING </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Jan van Eyck</a></span><span class="style1"> c.1390-1464, a northern artist, was the first important painter to use oils</span></text>
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<text><span class="style1">enaissance art, architecture and sculpture, like </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">humanism</a></span><span class="style1"> (and unlike music), saw their first great explosion of creativity in Florence. (See Medieval VI Essays "</span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Proto Humanism</a></span><span class="style1">" and "</span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Renaissance Intro</a></span><span class="style1">") The most immediate way to distinguish a Renaissance painting from a Medieval one is to look for a sense of perspective. Perspective, like the </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">triad</a></span><span class="style1"> in music, is THE great Renaissance contribution and most obvious and distinguishing feature.New to the Renaissance were:PERSPECTIVE </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group"> Leon Alberti</a></span><span class="style1"> 1404-1472, an architect, was the first to investigate true scientific perspective </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Masaccio</a></span><span class="style1"> c.1401-1428 was the earliest painter to give a true sense of perspective in his works</span></text>
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<text><span class="style1">ensions mounted in the early seventeenth century, leading to the general convulsion known as the </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Thirty Years War</a></span><span class="style1">, in which mercenary armies from every major continental power ravaged Germany until, in the end, all parties realized the futility of confessional conflict. In the same years England experienced its own religious Civil War, and so by mid-century religion declined as a force in politics and diplomacy. Europe was religiously divided, and would continue to see reform movements and new sects, but Europeans had agreed to disagree on religious matters rather than fight.</span></text>
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<text><span class="style1">hen the monk </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Martin Luther</a></span><span class="style1"> protested certain common abuses, he was protected from papal and imperial punishment by north German princes, who invited him to establish his own creed in their lands. Focusing on individual faith over the performance of good deeds, Luther's new religion emphasized each individual's ability to read and interpret the scriptures, obviating the need for the privileged priesthood of Catholicism. This last point proved more potent than Luther anticipated, for almost from the first others interpreted the scriptures differently from him, and Europe was soon filled with competing Protestant sects, most of which opposed each other almost as strenuously as they opposed the Pope. By the late sixteenth century </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Calvinism</a></span><span class="style1"> emerged as the leading Protestant sect (Lutheranism comfortably confining itself to its established position in Germany and Scandinavia), while the Catholic Church put its own house in order through the </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Council of Trent</a></span><span class="style1"> and the founding of the militant Jesuit order. </span></text>
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<text><span class="style1">ULTURERenaissance humanism travelled northward and inspired literary, philosophical, and artistic works that were local variants of Italian models, but its most important impact came about because of one direction its northern adherents took it, Christian </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">humanism</a></span><span class="style1">, an attempt to make the new tools and techniques serve older religious concerns. Christian humanists sought to infuse religion with a relaxed, common sensical attitude in place of the strict dogmatism of theology, and they attempted to cleanse contemporary practice by returning to the original Latin, Greek, and even Hebrew texts of Christianity. This latter effort proved explosive, because it mixed with a widespread dissatisfaction over the rampant corruption in the Church to produce a revolution in Christianity. As the humanists exposed the distortions that had been incorporated into Catholic theory and practice during the Middle Ages, they provided grist for the mill of more radical reformers who wished to return to the simple piety of the early Church. </span></text>
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<text><span class="style1">hese two colossi battled each other across Europe, fighting with conventional armies and supporting dissident political and religious factions as well. To some extent religious divisions cut across this conflict, since both monarchs were Catholic, and each in turn faced civil war between Catholics and Protestants that paralyzed royal power temporarily. In the end, though, the French abandoned religious scruples and supported both the Ottoman Turks in the Balkans and the Protestants of Germany. The struggle raged in Italy, Germany, the Netherlands, France, and then once again in Germany. In the end Spain's power collapsed, exhausted despite its American riches by the military and financial demands of its Habsburg rulers, while the German branch of the family abandoned its efforts to unite that country and turned to carve out an empire in the Balkans instead. </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">The Netherlands</a></span><span class="style1"> won its independence and Sweden made a brief appearance as a leading European power, but the most important result of the struggle was the emergence of France as Europe's dominant power, a status it would hold for the next two centuries. </span></text>
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<text><span class="style1">nd at sea cannons brought a more permanent revolution: high-sided Northern European ships powered solely by the wind could mount large numbers of cannons along their sides, and use them to blow the galleys of the Mediterranean, the "dhows" of the Indian Ocean, and the "junks" of the Far East out of the water. The age-old tactics of ramming and boarding were useless against these new warships; the European success in establishing their oceanic trading empires depended substantially on this superiority of their ships. The "line of battle" of galleons and later "men of war" firing broadsides from 50 to 120 cannons each would determine who would rule the waves, and who would profit from the commerce upon them, for the next 350 years; though primacy at sea would change, it would always be European.FOREIGN RELATIONSEuropean diplomacy in the Renaissance was dominated by the struggles between the rulers of France and the </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Habsburg</a></span><span class="style1"> Empire. France was the largest cohesive kingdom of Christendom, but it felt threatened by the House of Habsburg, a German family that married so well that by the beginning of the sixteenth century it controlled Spain and its American empire, southern Italy, the Low Countries, extensive holdings in southeastern Germany and leadership of the Holy Roman Empire. </span></text>
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<text>WARFAREAs in Italy, the soldiery changed from feudal levies to mercenaries, and warfare changed from a contest between mounted knights to an intricate struggle between pikemen, gunners and cavalry. The difference from Italy was the scale and the intensity: the national monarchies were capable of raising much larger armies, and the infusion of religion into war ended the polite, chess-like maneuvers of Italian warfare. Furthermore, weapons and tactics continued to evolve as guns increased in power and mobility, and defenses were modified to cope with them. The development of handguns gave infantry much more potent missile weapons than the traditional javelins, slings and arrows, which was particularly important in combat with extra-European enemies, but the most radical impact of gunpowder came from the development of cannons. On land, artillery pieces could easily destroy castle walls, which meant that sieges were de-emphasized for the better part of a century, and also that the nobles no longer had a secure place of refuge if they challenged the authority of their king. Military engineers eventually learned to build fortifications with low, thick, earthen walls, which returned power to the defensive, but the fortifications and the artillery and soldiers needed to man them were so expensive that they served to further enhance the monarchs' powers vis-a-vis the nobility. </text>
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<text>POLITICSThe politics of the period were dominated from the start by the struggle between the estates — the representatives of the nobility, towns, and clergy — and monarchs, a secular struggle that was compounded after 1517 by increasing tension between religious factions as well. As royal revenues increased with the growth of the tax base, royal power grew, leading monarchs to encroach on the traditional prerogatives of the towns and nobles. Sometimes the estates united to resist this challenge, while at other times factions vied with each other for favor from this source of money and power. In Britain, Spain, and France the monarchy gradually won out, curbing the independence of the great towns and transforming the nobles from semi-sovereigns into a privileged class of civil servants. In Germany and Poland the high nobles successfully resisted the monarchy, only to turn around and assert their own primacy within their own domains. These struggles engendered plenty of violence in the fifteenth century, but they brought even greater turmoil when mixed with the struggle between Catholics and Protestants in the sixteenth.</text>
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<text>SOCIETYJust as economic revival altered Italian society, so, too, it changed northwestern Europe, although not in precisely the same ways. Urban centers did grow more significant during the period, producing a typical urban society of laborers, artisans and traders, and a patriciate of merchants and financiers, but they remained islands in the rural sea. Both the increasing availability of luxury items to buy and the labor shortage following the Black Death made the west European nobility willing to cash out most of its feudal rights, giving the peasants personal freedom and reducing their labor and service dues in return for rents. Ironically, the same conditions in the East lead to the decline of the towns and the enserfment of the previously free peasantry as lords cut deals directly with Western merchants and tied the peasants to the land in order to create a totally dependent labor force. Meanwhile, in the West the "putting out" system supported a growing class of smallholders, families without sufficient land to support themselves, who depended on bi-employment to survive, which created new fissures and new tensions in rural communities that had previously been based on rough equality of means. Small wonder, then, that the period saw frequent and bitter peasant revolts, a growing problem of brigandage, and increasingly bitter struggles over wealth and status through witchcraft and witch accusations.</text>
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<text>The windfall of gold and silver first looted from the cities of Meso-America and then extracted by the slave labor of the Meso-Americans was used to pay for Asian goods, since Europe produced little of interest to the older civilizations of the East, and it fueled an inflation within Europe that stimulated the continued growth of internal trade and manufacture. The "putting out" system, in which an entrepreneur moved an article from one rural smallholder to another, with each performing one step in the production process in turn, came to overshadow artisanal production, at least in the most significant sector, textiles. (The "putting out" system supported a growing class of smallholders, families without sufficient land to support themselves, who depended on bi-employment to survive.) This specialization of production was regional as well as individual; in addition to northern Italy the Low Countries focused on textile production, and their specialization was complemented by the specialization of the Baltic region in grain production, with the surplus grain exchanged for the manufactured goods from the west. Not since the height of the Roman Empire had Europe seen such regional interdependence, while the global trade network of Europe's seagoing commerce was wholly unprecedented.</text>
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<text><span class="style1">ronically, while the number of Europeans was reaching new heights, the number of Native Americans plunged, dropping from about 10 million people in 1500 to barely 1 million in 1600, due in part to the brutality of </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">the Spanish conquerors</a></span><span class="style1">, but mostly to the ravages of Eurasian epidemic diseases.ECONOMYThe economic revival that began after 1000 AD was barely interrupted by the demographic disaster of the Black Death, in part because the germs did not destroy physical property, and in part because they could not eradicate the economic connections and business innovations of late Medieval Europe. If anything, agriculture prospered more than before, since it was relieved of the pressure of sustaining excess population, and trade continued to increase, suffering only local disruptions from the mortality and gaining immeasurably from the Portuguese success in opening a direct oceanic route to southern and eastern Asia and the Spanish conquest of the Americas. </span></text>
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<text><span class="style1">OPULATIONUnlike the Renaissance in Italy, the Northern Renaissance was purely a post-plague phenomenon, when the population was steadily on the rise. More importantly, it was suddenly a more urbanized population, for in the wake of the mass mortality the surviving people concentrated in the wealthiest areas, the fertile lowlands and the depopulated cities. As the number of people rose once more, they generally did not disperse in the pattern of Medieval settlement, hamlets and individual farmsteads, but instead crowded into villages and towns. In part this concentration reflected the economic opportunities of the towns; in part it reflected a deliberate policy of the increasingly powerful central governments, which favored concentration both because it took up less of the productive farmland for residences and above all because it made it easier to collect taxes. As the Western European population increased, it reached the level (c.100,000,000) of 1347, the year before the </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Black Death</a></span><span class="style1">, in the years between 1500 and 1525, and it continued to climb throughout the sixteenth century, passing the earlier limits set by subsistence, sustained by the greater capacity of the economy. </span></text>
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<text><span class="style1">EOGRAPHYBy the later Middle Ages, the European community stretched from the Portuguese coast on the Atlantic to the plains of Poland, and from the rugged hills of Sicily to the equally rugged hills of Scandinavia. Southern Spain remained under Moslem control, as did the Balkans, and Russia was only beginning to look westward; otherwise, Europe was beginning to take on its modern shape. Even as Europe coalesced, though, it burst its bounds and, by the end of the period, touched every civilized region of the world. The Portuguese explorers sailed south and then east, rounding the Cape of Good Hope and travelling onto India, Indonesia and China. The Spanish, meanwhile, followed </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Christopher Columbus</a></span><span class="style1"> and </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Magellan</a></span><span class="style1"> westward to the Carribean Sea, South and Central America, and ultimately across the Pacific to the Philippines. The chain of civilizations stretching along the south of Eurasia was incorporated into a global system run by and for Europeans.</span></text>
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<text><span class="style1">n literature, the humanists did not just revive classical Latin, they drew from it to create equally supple forms in the vernacular, while in philosophy, they rejected what they saw as the arid logic of the scholastic theologians in favor of a robust enthusiasm for daily life. At worst, the humanists' veneration of the ancients itself constituted an arid sort of hero-worship, but at best it formed the basis from which a vital new culture was forged. PROFILE — RENAISSANCE AND REFORMATION BEYOND THE ALPSINTRODUCTIONDuring the 1400s Renaissance culture spread beyond northern Italy. As it travelled, it was modified by its new adherents. In particular, northern European thinkers retained a religious commitment that was absent in their Italian counterparts, and it lead them to use the tools of humanism in new ways. A close outgrowth of Renaissance culture was Christian humanism; a more radical outgrowth was the religious schism in Western Christendom known as the </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Reformation</a></span><span class="style1">.</span></text>
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<text><span class="style1">ULTUREThe Renaissance was defined by its culture. "Renaissance" means rebirth, and what was being reborn was the classical culture of Greece and Rome. Living in a milieu that resembled the ancient city-states more than other parts of contemporary Europe, Renaissance thinkers revived the language, the literary forms, the very philosophy of life that they found in ancient texts. Their attitude, </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">humanism</a></span><span class="style1">, contrasted sharply and self-consciously with the religious preoccupations and scholastic methods of their Medieval forebearers, celebrating not just the achievements of pagan antiquity, but also the potential of contemporary humans as well, and they provided an educational program based on knowledge of the classics, a mastery of rhetoric, and the cultivation of the skills of the courtier to help people realize that potential. Renaissance artists perhaps best exemplified this exaltation of individual genius: they revived the realistic style of sculpture pioneered by the ancient Greeks, they discovered a method of recreating perspective in painting that went beyond anything the ancients had achieved, and they designed buildings equalling in beauty and surpassing in size the great monuments of antiquity. </span></text>
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<text>FOREIGN RELATIONSThe violent conflicts within Renaissance cities were mirrored by the violent conflicts between them, but these conflicts, like the warfare they involved, became more and more ritualized as the Renaissance progressed. As the city-states negotiated and fought, they evolved the basic forms of diplomacy that would characterize European international relations in the succeeding centuries: permanent embassies, diplomatic immunity, a respect for the amoral imperatives of power, and the concept of the balance of power, an implacable balancing mechanism in which the less powerful states banded together against the strongest in order to prevent it from attaining a position of hegemony. This system worked well so long as Italian affairs worked in isolation; it broke down at the end of the fifteenth century when the massive resources of Spain and France were drawn in. The Italians thought the foreigners came to serve their diplomatic interests, but the newcomers quickly overawed their hosts and subordinated Italian politics to the larger struggles of the new great powers.</text>
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<text>WARFAREDuring the Renaissance warfare changed in two major ways, continuing trends that had begun in the late Middle Ages. First of all, it became commercial: the urban militias were gradually replaced by soldiers who fought for hire, selling their services to the highest bidder and switching sides as financial interest dictated. Secondly, it saw the increasing predominance of infantry, initially because of the disciplined use of the pike, and subsequently because of the increasing effectiveness of handguns. The net result did not, however, render heavy cavalry entirely obsolete, but instead necessitated increasingly complex battlefield tactics as generals carefully coordinated the stolid mass of pikemen, the firepower of the gunners and the mobility of horsemen. Neither the mercenary soldiers nor their entrepreneurial commanders had much motive to fight to the death, and so Renaissance warfare became a complex series of maneuvers in which the goal was to place the opposing army in an untenable position, at which point it would surrender.</text>
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<text>SOCIETYRenaissance society was distinguished profoundly from contemporary European societies, and was at the same time linked intimately to those of Classical Greece and Rome, because it was urban. Just as Northern Italy was the first commercial region to emerge from agrarian Medieval Europe, so too it was the first urbanized region as well. In the rest of Europe towns were islands in a rural sea; in northern Italy they ruled the countryside. Landlords and peasants, the dominant orders elsewhere, were overshadowed by urban workers, artisans, traders and the patriciate of great merchants and financiers, who, just like their classical forbearers, struggled for position and power in the emerging urban order. Starting from a situation of relative equality, some members of the communes became increasingly more equal than others as they amassed wealth from trade and investment. The lower and middle classes did not accept the growing imbalances passively, though; they did not hesitate to convulse a city through demonstrations and rioting when they felt their interests were being intolerably compromised.</text>
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<text>As this trade brought ever more wealth, the Italians invested it in manufacturing and soon were supplying northern Europe with some of the finished products their ships had previously imported. As the economy developed, though, wages and prices rose faster in northern Italy than elsewhere, hurting the competitiveness of its exports, while other countries grabbed increasing shares of the Mediterranean carrying trade. The still wealthy late Renaissance Italian cities entered a new phase in which they acted as financial centers, an evolution which culminated in their role as economic leaders. After the Renaissance they fell behind the larger powers to the north, the new national economies of Northwest Europe, not falling into poverty by any means, but no longer on the cutting edge of economic development. Thus, they were the first economies to go through a process later experienced by Amsterdam and London, and perhaps even now by New York.</text>
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<text><span class="style1">OPULATIONThe steady growth of the Medieval population certainly lay behind the Italian Renaissance, fueling demand for trade and providing surplus manpower for the growing urban centers. However, once started, the cultural awakening proceeded apace even as the </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Black Death</a></span><span class="style1"> carried away one third of Europe's people, and it ran out of steam during the same period that the number of inhabitants rose once again to pre-plague levels.ECONOMYFavorably situated to profit from whatever trade took place between western Europe and the East, even in the early Middle Ages Northern Italy did not entirely lose its mercantile character, and it led the way in the first revitalization after 1000. By the fourteenth century, Venice and Genoa were thriving commercial centers and other cities were not far behind. Their merchants developed increasingly sophisticated business techniques like marine insurance, bills of exchange and double-entry bookkeeping which further fueled the expansion of commerce. </span></text>
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<text><span class="style1">ROFILE — THE ITALIAN RENAISSANCE(see also </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">PROFILE: RENAISSANCE AND REFORMATION BEYOND THE ALPS</a></span><span class="style1">)GEOGRAPHYThe cultural movement known as the Renaissance began in Northern Italy for reasons that had much to do with its geographic location. In the first place, the greatest concentration of artifacts remaining from Roman civilization survived in Italy, the heartland of the old empire. Secondly, and more importantly, Northern Italy was particularly well sited to profit from the late Medieval revival of long-distance trade, since it lay astride the shortest route in time and space from the Levant (the countries bordering on the eastern Mediterranean), the source of Asian luxury goods, and northern European markets. Ships carried goods on the first leg of this journey; in Northern Italy they were loaded onto pack trains for transport through Alpine passes to the upper Rhine, where they were loaded aboard riverboats for transport and sale downstream. The alternative routes to the east had to cross the rugged and less settled Balkans; routes to the west had to double back to reach the main markets; and the all-sea route around Iberia was impossible both because it was vulnerable to Moslem pirates based in North Africa and because Mediterranean ships were not seaworthy enough for the rough waters of the North Atlantic.</span></text>
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<text><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">ohannes Gutenberg</a></span><span class="style1">'s (c.1395-1463) invention of the printing press with movable type enabled the rapid northward spread of Italian humanism.(For developments in architecture, art and sculpture see </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Renaissance Art Intro</a></span><span class="style1">)(For developments in music see </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Renaissance General Comments on Music</a></span><span class="style1">)</span></text>
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<text><span class="style1">ne of Chrysoloras's pupils at Florence University, Poggio Bracciolini (1380-1459), became a great scholar, collector of manuscripts and chancellor of Florence. Bracciolini discovered numerous manuscripts of classical authors, including works by </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Cicero</a></span><span class="style1">, </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Quintilian</a></span><span class="style1">, </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Lucretius</a></span><span class="style1"> and </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Vitruvius</a></span><span class="style1">. </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Cosimo de Medici</a></span><span class="style1"> (1389-1464) built the library of San Marco to house these texts. Humanism's renewed interest in man and his world also gave birth to an explosion of knowledge in the sciences and in exploration. Biology/Anatomy </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Vesalius</a></span><span class="style1"> (probably the first to dissect a human body) Astronomy </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Copernicus</a></span><span class="style1"> Mechanics </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Leonardo da Vinci</a></span><span class="style1"> </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Portuguese navigators</a></span><span class="style1"> Vasco da Gama Magellan </span></text>
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<text><span class="style1">he Renaissance in all but music began in Florence, the "cradle of the Renaissance." In 1397 the Byzantine Emperor Manuel II (r.1391-1425) sent an emissary, Manuel Chrysoloras (c.1353-1415), to Italy to get help from the Italian states in his battles with the Moslem Turks. The papacy was of no help owing to the "</span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Great Schism</a></span><span class="style1">" during which there were two popes, Boniface IX [r.1389-1404] and anti-pope Benedict XIII [r.1394-1423]. Chrysoloras returned to Constantinople without the required aid but was invited to become the first Professor of Greek at Florence University. He returned to Italy to take the post and, in 1400 (a good general date for the start of the Renaissance), Chrysoloras arranged the first tour of Florentine intellectuals to Constantinople. (see Medieval III Essay "</span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Byzantium</a></span><span class="style1">") Chrysoloras also translated Homer and </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Plato</a></span><span class="style1"> into Latin. His </span><span class="style2">Erotemata</span><span class="style1"> (printed 1484) was the first Greek grammar used in the west.</span></text>
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<text><span class="style1">ENAISSANCE OVERVIEWThe term "Renaissance" ("rebirth" in French) was first used in its modern historic sense by Jules Michelet for the 9th volume of his great history of France (1855). But the most lasting impetus came from Jacob Burckhardt's </span><span class="style2">The Civilization of the Renaissance in Italy</span><span class="style1"> (1860). Michelet correctly said that the essence of the Renaissance was the discovery of the world, the discovery of man. </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Humanism</a></span><span class="style1"> (the terms "humanism" and "Renaissance" are almost interchangeable) focused on man, his world and his history at the center of things. Humanists were especially concerned with the rediscovery of ancient Greek and Roman manuscripts. </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Petrarch</a></span><span class="style1"> (1304-1374), who was the first to use the term "humanism" (and the first to coin the term "dark ages") was also the first to urge renewed interest in our Greek and Roman heritage. Leonardo Bruni (c.1370-1444), a humanist chancellor of Florence, compared the civic virtues of republican Florence with those of </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">republican Rome</a></span><span class="style1"> and even with those of Athens in the age of </span><span class="style3"><a href="#" class="group">Pericles</a></span><span class="style1">. </span></text>
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